V 


YORKl'S 


maiim  gramviaii 


inVISED  AND  AjjAPTEl! 


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c        ^OUTfiERN  SCHOOLS 


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DUKE 

UNIVERSITY 

LIBRARY 


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GIFT  OF 

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Historical  Society 


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YORK'S 


^  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 


REVISED  AND  ADAPTED 


TO 


SOUTHERN  SCHOOLS 


BY 


t 


REY.  BRANTI.EY  YORK. 


THIRD    EDITION. 


EALEIGII,  K  C: 
BRANSON,    FARRAR&    CO., 

FAYKTTEVLLLE     STREFTF. 


/ 


1864. 


,\\\ 


0 


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p 


n   „AJ^ 


PREFACE. 


At  what  age  should  the  study  of  Grammar  be  commenced?  This 
and  similar  quc^stioos  have  frequently  been  asked  the  author.  But  no 
age,  perhaps,  can  be  specified ;  some  are  as  well,  or  bettor  prepared  to 
commence  the  study  at  eight  or  nine,  than  others  are  at  ten  or  eleven, 
or  even,  perhaps,  at  twelve  or  thirteen.  The  author  is  of  the  opinion 
that,  with  a  suitable  text-book  aiwi  instruction,  the  study  should  be 
commenced  as  soon  as  the  pupils  can  read  intelligibly.  This  study 
should  be  commenced  early,  for  the  following  reasons : 

1. — In  order  to  prevent  the  formation  of  erroneous  habits  of  speak- 
ing and  writing;  for  every  one  must  be  aware  of  the  great  difficulty 
of  breaking  up  erroneous  habits,  once  formed  and  deeply  seated. 

2. — Because  Grammar,  well  understood,  tends  directly  to  focilitate 
any  or  all  other  studies.  As  the  knowledge  of  any  subject  must  be 
acquired  through  the  medium  of  language,  whether  written  or  oral ; 
it  follows,  therefore,  of  necessity,  that  the  better  this  medium  is  un- 
derstood, other  things  being  equal,  the  more  thorough  and  rapid  will 
be  the  progress  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  tlic  vju-ious  subjects,  em- 
bracing the  educational  course. 

8. — If  this  sul)jcct  be  not  mastered  before  the  pupils  enter  College^ 
their  knowledge  of  it  is  likely  to  be  defective  through  life,  since  but 
Ibttle  attention  is  generally  paid  to  the  study  of  English  Grammar  after 
they  commence  tlic  Collegiate  course. 

One  of  the  leading  features  in  the  art  of  teaching,  is,  the  adaptation 
of  the  subject  to  the  various  capacities  of  the  pupils.     Much  time  and  ^ 
money  have  been  lost,  and,  perhaps,  pupils  injured  by  entering  upon  - 


21527 


XV  PREFACE. 

the  study  of  puljccts  which  arc  above  and  beyond  tlic  uinio-t  rcuch 
of  their  faculties.  Led  by  tliis,  and  similar  views,  the  author  has 
attempted  the  publication  of  a  (Irammar  adapted  to  the  capacities  of 
the  juvenile  mind — which  Grammar  he  denominates  "An  Introduction 
to  the  Ilhistrative  and  Constructive  Grammar."  The  plan  of  teaxrhincr, 
as  unfolded  in  the  latter,  is  precisely  simiLir  to  that  of  the  former ; 
l:encc  it  will  be  fotmd  to  l>e  a  convenient  and  ca.«y  introduction  to  the 
more  voluminous  and  elaborate  treatise  embraced  in  the  former  work. 

The  object  of  the  author,  in  the  publication  of  this,  as  well  as  the 
;  liner  work,  is  to  make  the  study  of  English  Granunar  more  attractive 
by  making  it  more  thorough  and  practical.  11'  success  should  crown 
his  efforts  in  this  respect,  he  will  rest  satisfied  that  he  has  done  a  goo<l 
work — a  work  that  will  tell  for  good  upon  the  present  and  subsccjuent 
gc'iK rations.  With  these  few  prefatory  remarks,  this  little  work  i^^ 
submitted  to  the  examination  of  a  candid  and  discerning  public. 

THE  AUTHOR. 

York  Collegiate  In.stitutc,  N.  C,  October,  I80O. 


21527 


coisrTEisrTS, 

PAIIT   I, 


PAaB. 


LESSON  I. 

A  Sentence,  1 

Subject,  1 

Predicate,  1 

Eserciees.  1 

LESSON  n. 

Sentences,  1 

Simple,  i 
Co-ordinate  Connective,  2 

Complex,  2 

Compound,  2 

Exercises,  2 


LESSON  in. 

Claoses, 

Leading  Clanee, 
Co-ordinate    " 
Subordinate   " 
Exercises, 

LESSON  IV. 

Kinds  of  sentences. 

Affirmative, 

Subfinnative, 

Interrogative, 

Exclamative, 

Imperative, 

Petitionative, 

Excrcisca, 

LESSON  V. 


LESSON  VIL 


Oenstruction  of  Subject 

and  Predicate,  4 

Exercises,  5 

LESSON  VL 

BlemcntB  of  Sentences,  5 

How  many  Klementt*,  5 

Subtantivc  elements,  5 

Noun,  5 

Prononn.  6 

Verbal  elementa,  5 

Verb,  5 

Elementa  continued,  6 


Adjective  elements,  6 

A^ective,  6 

Article,  6 

Participle,  6 

Adverbial  elements,  6 

Adverb,  6 

Connective  elements,  7 

Conjunction,  1 

Preposition,  T 

Model  for  Elements,  7 

Exercises,  8 

LESSON  VIIL 

Elements  of  the  Tirt^t^ 
second,  and  tbird  daee- 
e»,  9 

Phrase,  9 

Model,  9 

Exercises,  10 

LESSON  IX. 

Principal  and  Subordinate 
Elements,  10 

Modification  of  Subject 
or  predicate  Indirect- 
ly/ 11 

Model,  11 

Exercises,  11 

LESSON  X. 

The   Subject— Simple, 
Compound,  and  Com- 
plex, or  Logical,  13 

Exercises,  12 

LESSON  XL 

The  Predicate,  Simple, 
Compound,  and  Com- 
plex, 12, 18 
Copula,  15 
Exercises,  13 

LESSON  XIL 

PosseHsive  and  Objeo- 
tivc  elementa,  14 


Pagb.  Pa<JE. 

fExcTClses,  14 

LESSON  XIIL 

; 

Construction    of   ele- 
ments, 14 
Promiscuoas  Exerciser,  15 


LESSON  XIV. 

Monologic  Analysis,  16 

Characters  used,  15 

Connectives,  16 

Such  as  give  Clausea,  16 

do        Phrases,  16 

Co-ordinate,  16 

Subordinate,  17 

Exercises,  17 

LESSON  XV. 

Dendrology  or  Constmc- 

tion  of  Sentences,  17 

The  Trunk,  or  leading 

clause,  18 

The  Branch,  or  Subor- 
dinate members,  18 

LESSON  XVL   / 

Dendrology  continued,  IS 

Order,  18 

Notation,  18 

Integrity,  19 

Rank,  19 

LESSON  XVII. 

Dendrology  contimiod,  20 
Position  20 
Hub  aud  Super  Mem- 
bers, 20 
Illustrntion  by  Diagram,  21 
Exercises,  _  2? 

LESSON  XVIII. 


Alligation, 

Diagram, 

Exercise*, 


94 


vin 


CONTENTS. 


PART    II. 


LESSON  I. 

Lao^age, 


Page.  Page. 

LESSON  xin. 

25    Modes  of  the  Verb,         89 
Diagram,  40 


LESSON  IL 

Gra-mmar,  ^'i 

Letters,  2<) 

Division  of  Letters,  20 
Table    of  Elementary 

Sounds,  27 


LESSON  in. 

English  Grammar, 


28 


LESSON  IV. 

The  Divisions  of  Gram- 
mar, 28,  29 

Orthography,  Etymolo- 
gy, byntax,  and  Proso- 
dy, 29 

LESSON  V. 

Parts  of  Speech  or  Clas- 
sification of  Words,     29 

Primary  and  Secondary 
Words,  29 

Definition  of  the  Parts 
of  Speech,  30 

Exercises,  31 


LESSON  VL 

Nouns, 

LESSON  vn. 

Gender  and  Person, 

LESSON  VIIL 

Nnmt>er, 

LESSON  IX. 

Caec, 

LESSON  X. 
Parsing, 
Model^ 
Exercises, 


31 


32 


33 


^ 


LESSON  XL 

The  Verb,  36 
Division  of  the  Ver>,  37 
Transitive   and  Intran- 
sitive, 37 
Voice,  37 

LESSON  XIL 

The  Verb  Continued,  38 

Regular,  38 

Irregular,  38 

Auxiliary,  38 

Defective,  38 


I     LESSON  XIV. 

Tenses  of  the  Verb,         41 

Diagram,  43 

LESSON  XV. 

Nnmber  and  Person  of 
the  Verb,  44 

Personal  or  Verbal  ter- 
minations, 45 

Familiar  and  Solemn 
Style,  45 

LESSON  XVL 

Conjugation,  46 

Conjugation  of  the  verb 
To  Be,  56 

LESSON  XVIL 

Conjugation  of  the  verb 
Love,  50 

Passive   Voice,    how 
formed,  53 

LESSON  XVIIL 

Formation  of  Tenses,     54 

LESSON  XIX. 

List  of  Irregular  Verbs,  55 
Model  for  Parsing  the 

Verb,  59 

Exercises,  60 

LESSON  XX. 

Participle,  60 

Imperfect,  61 

Perfect,  61 

Pluperfect,  61 

Model,  .61 

Exercises,  62 

LESSON  XXL 

Pronouns  or  Substi- 
tutes, 03 

Two  Classes— Personal 
and  Relative,  62 

LESSON  XXIL 

Declension,  63 

Diagram  of  Declension 

of  Pronouns,  64 

Model,  65 

Exercises,  65 

LESSON  XXIIL 

Relative,  or  Connective 
Pronouns,  66 


Pagb, 
LESSON  XXIV. 

Of  Whoever,  Whichev- 
er, What,  67 
Models,  67 
Exercises,  68 

LESSON  XXV. 

Article,  69 

Model  and  Exercises,      70 

LESSON  XXVL 

Adjectives    or   Attri- 
butes, 71 
Qualifying  Adjectives,    71 

LESSON  XXVIL 

Formation  of  the  De- 
grees of  Comparison,  72 
Illustrated  by  Diagram,  T3 
Model  and  Exercises,  73 

LESSON  XXVIIL 

Specifying  or  Limiting 

Adjectives,  75 

Model  and  Exercises,     75 

LESSON  XXIX. 

Adverbs  or  Modifiers,      75 
Four  Classes,  76 

Model  and  Exercises,      77 

LESSON  XXX. 

Prenositions,  77 

Model  and  Exercises,      78 

LESSON  XXXL 

Conjunctions  or  Con- 
nectives, 79 
Models  and  Exercises,    79 

LESSON  XXXIL 

Interjections  or  Excla- 
mations, 80 
Model  and  Exercises,      80 

LESSON  XXXIIL 

Cases  Independent,  Ab- 
solute, and  Apposi- 
tion, 81 

Models  and  Exercises,    82 


Promiscuous  Exercises  82 
LESSON  XXXIV. 

Syntax,  84 

Government,  84 

Concord,  84 

Position,  84 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


Page. 


LESSON  XXXV 

Ilu-lcw  of  Syiitiix, 


Page. 


85 


LESSON   XXXVI. 

Rules  of  Syntax  Avith 
Notes ;  awd  Sentences 
to  be  corrected,  88 

Exercises,  88 

LESSON  xxxvir. 

Rules.  Notes,  and  False 

Syntax  cor, tinned,        88 
Model  and  Exercises,      8!) 

LESSON  XXXV 111. 
Fal^e  Syntax  continued,  89 
Model  and  Exercises,      90 

LESSON  XXXLX. 

F.'Use  Syntax  contin'd,    JK) 
Mode!  and  Exercises,      91 

LESSON  XL. 

False  Syntax  continued,  91 
Model  niKi  Exercises,      92 


LESSON  XLTIL 

The  same  continued, 

LESSON  XLIV. 
Same  continued, 

LESSON  XLV. 

Same  continued, 

LESSON  XLVL 

Same  cmitinued, 

LESSON  XLVII, 

Same  continued. 

To  bo  con-ected  by  the 

I)ia;^ram  of  Tinie, 
Model  and  Exercises, 


LESSON  NET. 

Yaho  Sviit;ix  eontiu"d.  93 

I\[od.-i  a.Kl  EvcrcIsLis,  'M 

LESSON  XLTL 

PV-lse  Svr.tnx  contiu'd.  Or^ 

Models  and  Exercises.  \>5 


98 


98 


I  Rules  and  Remarks, 
nc  I  Period, 
■     The  Dash, 

The  Parenthesis, 

Interrogation  Point, 

Exclannition  Point, 

Brackets, 

(Quotation  Marks, 

The  Caret, 

The  Hyphen, 

The  Ellipsis, 

The  Index, 

Accent, 

The  Apostrophe, 

The  Asterisk, 

Marginal  Points, 


99 

100 
100 


LESSON  XLVTTI 

False  Syntax  Promiscu- 


ously Arranged, 

LESSON  XLLX. 

Colloquial     Inaccura- 
cies, 

LESSON  LX. 

Punctuation  or  Gnomo 

nology, 
Comma, 

Rules  and  I{emark^ 
Semicolon. 
Itulw  and  Rcir.ark> 
Colon, 


101 


Page. 

Ill 
112 
112 
113 
118 
113 
113 
113 
113 
113 
114 
114 
11^ 
114 
115 
115 


LESSON  LT. 

Capitals, 


LESSON  LTL 

Versification, 

Measure, 

Verse, 

Stanza, 

Common  Meter, 
101 'Short  Meter, 

jLong  Meter, 

j  Blank  Verso, 

I  Rhyme, 

'Scanning, 
105  Eight  kinds  of  Feet, 
105! Iambic  Verse, 
100 'Alexandrine, 
110  j  Trochaic  Verse, 

110  Anapiestic  Verse, 

111  I  Dactylic  Verse. 


115 


110 
116 
116 
IIG 
IIH 
116 
117 
117 
117 
117 
117 
117 
118 
118 
119 
120 


^ 


INTKODUCTfON 

TO  THE 

Illustrative   and   Constrnetive   Grammar. 


PART  FIRST. 


LESSON  I. — OF  SENTENCES. 
What  is  a  Sentence! 

A  Sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as  asserts  a 
fact ;  as,  The  sun  shines. 

What  elements  are  necessary  to  assert  a  £aot  ? 

The  Subject  and  Predicate. 

What  is  the  Subject  of  a  Sentence? 

It  is  that  of  which  something  is  said. 

What  is  the  Predicate; 

It  is  that  which  is  said  of  the  subject. 

Which  is  the  subject  in  the  foregoing  sentence^  "  the  sun  ehines  ? 

Sun. 

Why? 

Because  something  is  said  of  it. 

What  is  said  of  it? 

Shines.  "V 

What  then  is  eJiine4? 

It  is  the  Predicate. 

Why? 

Because  it  is  said  or  affirmed  of  the  subject,  »un, 
EXERCISES. 

[Point  oat  the  Subjects  and  Predieates  in  tho  following  sentences  :] 

Boys  play.     John  reads.     Mary  studies.     Birds  sing^ 
Flowers  bloom.     Trees  grow.    Fishes  swim  in  the  sea. 


LESSON  II. 


OP  SIMPLE,  COMPOUND,  AND  COMPLEX  SENTENCES. 
What  is  a  Simple  Sentence  ? 

A  Simple  sentence  has  but  one  subject  and  predicate, 
asserting  one  fact  only  ;  as.  Rivers  flow. 


1  York's  illustrative  and 

What  is  a  Compocnd  sentence  ? 

A  Compound  sentence  consists  of  t^vo  or  more  simple 
sentences,  united  by  a  coordinate  connective;  :is,  Wheat 
gro^s,  and  men  reap  it. 

What  do  you  understand  by  a  co-ordinate  connective? 

A  co-ordinate  connective  unites  two  clauses  or  elements 
of  equal  rank  in  construction. 

What  is  a  Complex  sentence  ? 

A  Complex  sentence  must  contain  at  least  one  lea  din  :x 
clause,  and  one  subordinate,  or  modif^'in;:;  one  ;  as,  The 
boy  tvho  studies,  will  improve. 

Which  is  the  leading  clause  in  this  sentence  ? 

The  boy  will  improve. 

Which  is  the  Subordinate  or  modifying  clause/ 

Who  studies. 

Why  is  this  called  the  subordinate  or  modifying  chiuse  .' 

Because  it  is  not  only  incapable  of  making  sense  of 
itself,  but  it  also  modifies  the  subject  of  the  leading  clause. 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  Simple,  Compound,  and  Complex  sentences.] 

The  boy  wounded  the  old  bird,  and  stole  the  young  ones. 
Flowers  grow  in  the  gardens.  The  bird  which  sung  so 
sweetly,  has  flown.  John  has  a  new  book.  >Vhen  he 
comes,  we  shall  hear  \'ie  news.  John  reads;  and  Jam.es 
writes. 


LESSON  in. 

or   CLAUSES. 


What  is  a  Clause? 

A  clause  is  a  subdivision  of  a  sentence,  containing  a  sub- 
ject and  predicate. 

IIow  maLy  kinds  of  clauses  are  there  ? 

There  are  three  kinds,  viz:  the  leading,  the  co-ordinate, 
and  the  subordinate,  or  modifying. 

"What  is  the  leading  clause  ? 

The  leading  clause  generally  stands  first  in  the  sentcn.  "• 
and  contains  the  principal  subject  and  predicate. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  3 

What  is  the  co-ordinate  clause  ? 

The  co-ordinate  clause  is  equal  in  rank  to  the  leading 
clause,  and  can  make  sense  independent  of  it. 

What  is  the  subordinate,  or  modifying  clause  ? 

The  subordinate  is  inferior  in  rank  to  the  leading  clause, 
and  incapable  of  making  sense  without  it.  The  following 
sentence  contains  a  clause  of  each  kind  ;  "  The  scrip- 
tures CONTAIN    THE    REVEALED  WILL  OF   GoD ;   tlie^  were 

written  at  different  periods^  hy  holy  men  who  wrote  as  they 
were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost." 

You  will  perceive  that  the  leading  clause  is  in  small 
capitals,  the  co-ordinate,  in  italics,  and  the  subordinate,  in 
roman  letters. 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  different  kinds  of  clauses  in  the  following  sentences.] 

Henry  works ;  and  John  plays.  Eliza  will  improve,  if 
she  study.  We  shall  hear  the  news  when  the  messenger 
arrives.  James  is  a  good  boy,  and  he  learns  well.  The 
boy  who  does  not  study,  will  not  improve. 


LESSON  IV. 


OF  AFFIRMATIVE,  SUBFIRMATIVE,  INTERROGATIVE,  EXCLAM- 
ATIVE,    IMPERATIVE,    AND   PETITIONATIVE   SENTENCES. 
What  is  an  Affirmative  sentence? 

An  Affirmative  sentence  expresses  the  highest  degree  of 
affirmation  or  verbal  force;  as.  Snow  is  white. 

What  is  a  Subfirmative  sentence  f 

A  Subfirmative  sentence  expresses  a  less  degree  of  ver- 
bal force  than  the  affirmative ;  as,  The  reporter  may  have 
been  mistaken.     If  Mary  study,  she  will  improve. 

What  is  an  Interrogative  sentence  ? 

An  Interrogative  sentence  contains  a  question',  as.  Is 
Henry  at  home  ?     Who  wrote  that  ? 

How  many  kincs  of  Interrogative  sentences  are  there  ? 

Two,  viz  :  Direct  and  Indirect. 

When  is  a  question  Direct  i* 

When  the  question  is  asked  with  a  verb,  the  answer  beiog 
ycB  or  no  \  as,  la  he  at  home  ?     No, 


4  YOEK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AKD 

When  is  it  Indirect .' 

When  the  question  is  asked  with  an  adverb  or  Interrog* 
alive  pronoun ;  as,  Where  is  thy  home  ?   Who  art  thou  ? 

What  is  an  Exclamatire  sentence  ? 

An  Exclamative  sentence  expresses  some  feeling  or 
emotion  together  with  the  affirmation  ;  as,  How  cold  and 
feeble  is  my  love !     0  that  I  had  a  hiding  place ! 

What  is  an  Imperatire  sentence  ? 

An  Imperative  sentence  contains  a  command ;  as,  "  Go 
ye  into  all  the  world." 

What  is  a  Petitionative  sentence  ? 

A  Petitionative  sentence  contains  a  petition ;  as,  "  For- 
give us  our  debts." 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  oat  the  different  kinds  of  sentences  in  the  following  :] 

May  I  go  ?  May  the  Lord  prosper  your  ways !  Boys, 
attend  to  your  studies.  He  is  at  home.  Whither  shall  I 
fly  ?  If  he  study,  he  will  improve.  I  may  have  said  it. 
Who  can  abide  his  coming.    Washington  was  a  patriot. 


LESSON  V. 

CONSTRUCTION  OP  THE  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE. 
How  ia  the  Subject  oonstraed  in  affirmative  and  Sub'firmative  eentenoes  7 

It  is  generally  construed  before  the  predicate  ;  oi,  Flott- 
ers  bloom.  The  hiubandman  is  happy,  if  he  knows  his  ad- 
vantages. 

How  is  the  Subject  oonstraed  in  Interrogative  sentences  ? 

It  is  generally  construed  after  the  predicate,  or  between 
its  parts ;  as.  Is  Mart/  at  home  ?    Does  he  Jcnow  me  ? 

How  ia  it  construed  in  Exclamative  sentences  ? 

Generally  after  the  predicate  ;  as,  liow  short  is  life  ! 

How  is  the  Subject  construed  in  Imperative  and  Petitionative  sentences? 

It  is  construed  after  the  predicate  ;  as,  Go  thou*  For- 
give thou  us  our  trespasses. 

Rem.  The  subject  is  generally  understood  in  such  sen- 
tences as  the  last. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  5 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  construction  of  the  Subject  in  the  following  sentences.] 

Wolves  howl  in  the  woods.  Dogs  bark.  If  the  boys 
study,  they  will  improve.  Has  John  lost  his  pencil  ?  Is 
Mary  studious  ?  Obey  my  precepts.  Pity  thou  me.  How 
poor  is  gold  !     How  swiftly  time  glides  ! 


LESSON  VI. 

OP    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   SENTENCES. 

An  Element  is  a  constituent  part  of  a  sentence. 

How  many  Elements  are  there  ? 

There  are  five,  classified  according  to  the  office  they 
perform  in  the  sentence. 

What  an  they  called  ? 

Substantive,  Verbal,  Adjective,  Adverbial,  and  Connec- 
tive. 

How  would  you  define  a  Substantive  element  ? 

Substantive  elements  are  the  names  of  things,  or  their 
substitutes,  or  whatever  can  be  made  the  subject  of  affir- 
mation. 

What  do  Substantive  elements  embrace  ? 

All  nouns  and  pronouns. 

What  do  you  mean  by  a  noun  ? 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  anything  ;  as,  Man,  Raleigh. 

What  by  a  Pronoun  ? 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun ;  as,  he, 
she,  it. 

What  are  Verbal  elements  ? 

Verbal  elements  are  such  as  affirm  or  express  action. 

What  do  they  embrace? 

All  verbs  and  their  variations. 

What  is  a  verb  ? 

A  Verb  asserts  or  affirms ;  as.  The  hixdi  flies. 
2 


York's  illustrative  and 


LESSON  VII. 

ELEMENTS   CONTINUED. 


What  are  adjective  elementfl? 

Adjective  elements  limit  substantive  elements ;  as,  Fair 
ladies  ;  men  of  business. 

What  do  Adjective  elements  embrace  ? 

They  embrace  all  adjectives,  articles,  and  participles. 

What  ie  an  adjective? 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun,  to  express  its 
quality,  or  limit  its  meaning ;  as,  a  studious  boy ;  that 
book. 

What  is  an  Article  ? 

An  Article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  nouns  to  limit  their 
signification ;  as,  A  man;  the  men. 

Remark. — It  will  be  perceived  by  the  pupils  that  the 
.'irticle  differs  but  little  from  the  specifying  adjective ;  some 
authors  have,  therefore,  classified  it  with  the  adjective. 

What  is  a  Participle  ? 

A  particle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  and  partakes 
of  the  nature  of  a  verb,  and  also  of  an  adjective ;  as,  I 
.see  a  man  ivalking. 

Rem. — Such  phrases  and  clauses  as  limit  substantive 
elements,  are  also  included  in  Adjective  elements. 

What  are  Adverbial  elements? 

Adverbial  elements  limit  the  Predicate  or  some  other 
verbal  element. 

What  do  they  embrace  ? 

They  embrace  all  adverbs,  phrases,  and  clauses  used 
adverbially. 

What  is  an  Adverb  ? 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  verb,  participle, 
adjective,  or  adverb  ;  as,  a  very  good  ptn  writes  extremely 
well.     The  bird  was  singing  siveetly. 


Wh«.t  Afe  Cooneciive  elements  ? 

They  are  suah  ias  uaito  otLgr  elem-eats  in  ctin'€»t  dis- 
course- 

What  do  diey  «mbrac«  ? 

Thej  emibra<3e  conjunctions^  prepositions,  relative  pr-^- 
aouiis,  and  connective  adverbs^ 

What  is  a  Conjunction  ? 

A  Conjunetioa  i-s  a  word  used  to<3<s>nEect  words  or  clauses 
of  sentences ;  SbS,  James  and  John  are  at  home- 

What  is  a  i^reposition? 

A  Preposition  is  used  to  eonsect  words,  and  show  thf 
relation  between  them ;  as,  Henrj  went  znto  the  country. 


MODEL- 


^'  The  iowering  clouds  move  slowly/* 

This  is  a  simple  sentence;  because  it  coutaing  «.  eingi^ 
flubjeet  and  predicate- 

The  is  s^u  adje<;tive  .element  of  the  first  kin^d,  and  limits 
the  element  clouds  by  pointing  it  out  definitely. 

Lowering  is  an  adjective  element  of  the  first  kind,  and 
limits  clouds  by  pointing  out  what  elouds  are  meant. 

Clouds  is  a  substantive  element,  and  is  the  subject  of  thi*- 
proposition ;  because  something  is  said  of  it. 

Move  is  a  verbal  element,  and  is  the  predicate  of  thig 
sentence;  be^jause  it  is  said  of  the  subject,  action  being 
predicated. 

'Slowly  \s.  an  adverbial  element  of  the  first  kind,  and 
modifies  the  predicate  move  by  pointing  out  the  manner  of 
its  aetion. 

What  part  of  speech  is  the  f 

It  is  the  Definite  Article, 

Why? 

JJecause  it  limits  the  noun  cloudi  to  ^  particular  collec- 
tion of  clouds. 


'i  York's  illustrative  and 

What  part  of  ppeech  is  lovering,  ? 

It  is  an  Adjective. 

Why? 

Because  it  is  added  to  the  noun  clouds,  to  express    it?' 
quality. 

What  kind  cf  an  adjective  is  it? 

It  is  a  qualifying  adjective. 

Why? 

Because  it  expresses  quality. 

What  part  of  speech  is  clovd^f 

It  is  a  nouD. 

Why? 

Because  it  is  a  namco 

What  sort  of  a  noun  is  it? 

It  is  a  Common  Noun, 

Whf? 

Because  it  is  a  name  common  to  a  whole  class  of  things, 

RTiat  is  m^ve  T 

A  verb.  • 

Why? 

Because  it  asserts  or  affirms-.. 

What  is  dowly  ? 

It  is  an  Adverb. 

Why? 

Because  it  is  added  to  the  verb  iiyiove^  to  modify  its 


meaning. 


EXERCISES. 


[Aoalyie  the  following  sentenoes,  and  point  otit  the  parts  of  speecli  as 
9-xhibited  in  the  above  Model  ] 

Those  tall  trees  wave  gracefully.  Good  men  sometimes 
suffer  adversity.  Careless  boys  learn  their  lessons  badly. 
John  sees  a  man  walking  slowly.     Those  mountain  tor- 


CONSTRUCTIVB   GRAMMAR.  9 

r-ents  run  rapidly.    Those  little  birds  sin^  sweetly.     Th« 
trumpet  souuds  loudly. 


LESSON  VIIL 

•Of  Elements  of  the  First,  Second,  and  Third  Classes, 

What  is  an  element  of  the  First  Class  ? 

An  element  of  tli^e  First  class  is  a  ^ingl£>  word,  used  as 
a.  constituent  part  of  a  sentence. 

What  is  an  element  of  the  Second  Class  ? 

It  is  a  Phrase,  used  as  an  clement  of  the  sentence^ 

What  is  a  Phrase? 

A  Phrase  -consists  -of  two  or  more  words  closely  united 
and  modifying  some  <3ther  element,  but  it  contains  no  ai- 
ifirmation. 

What  is  an  element  of  the  Third  Class  ? 

It  is  a  suhordmate  clause^  used  as  an  element  of  the  &en- 
wcnce. 


MODEL. 


That  nohie  General  who  had  gained  so  many  victories. 
viied  at  last,  in  prison. 

That  is  an  Adjective  element  of  the  First  Class,  and 
Hmits  General  by  pointing  it  out  definitely. 

Noble  is  an  Adjective  element  of  the  First  Class,  and 
Hmits  G«eneral  by  expressing  its  qiuality. 

General  is  a  Substantive  element,  and  i.^  the  Subject  -.f 
this  proposition  ;  because  something  is  said  of  it. 

Who  had  gained  so  mauij  victories^  is  an  Adjective  -ele- 
ment of  the  Third  Class,  and  limits  General  by  pointin^t' 
out  what  General  is  meant. 

Died  is  a  Verbal  element,  and  is  the  Predicate  of  this 


10  York's  illustrati\'e  anjo 

.sentence  ;  because  it  h  affirmed  of  the  sal)j ect,  aetion  be- 
ing predicated. 

At  last,  is  an  Adverbial  element  of  the*  Second  Class^ 
and  modifies  the  Predicate  die^  hj  px^inting  out  tlie  time 
of  the  ei/ent. 

In  p-idon,  is  an  Adverbial  element  of  the  Second  Class^ 
and  modifies  the  Predicate  died  bj  pointing  out  the  »eene' 
of  its  action. 


EXERCISES. 

.[Analyye  the  followng  ssmtences,  and  point  oat  the  parta^  of  spiJecli  aa  in 
The  foregoing  Lessons  ] 

Mar  J  walked  in^o  tie  countrj.  A  beam  c^f  tra:aquilit  j 
often  plays  aro-utid  the  heart  of  a  truly  pious  man.  The 
studen^t  "who  studies  his-  lessons  closely,  will  improve  rap- 
idly. A  %Yinding  stream  mnrmured  through  the  grove. — - 
The  sun  shines  upon  the  fl  oor;  Henry  Clay  was  a  dis- 
tinguished orator.  Paul  was  eminent  for  his  zeal.  Chil- 
drei^  pl^-y  upon  the  green  grass. 


LESSO-N  m. 

OF   PRINCIPAL  AND"  SUBORDINATE-  ELEMES-ITJ^, 
W'bat  are  Principal  Elements  ? 

The-  Subject  and  Predicate. 

Because  no  sentersce  cau  exist  without  them^ 

What  are  Subordinate  Elememts  ? 

They  are  &uch  as  limit  the  subject  or  predicate,  either 
directly  or  indirectly. 

Why  are  they  called  Subordinate  ? 

Because  they  are  not  absolutely  necessary  to  the  exist- 
ence of  a  sentence  ;  but  are  of  subordinate  use,  being  eu-i- 
ployed  to  express- some  circiimstance  of  a  fa®t. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  11 

What  is  meant  by  modifying  the  subject  or  predici-te  indirectly  f 

When  an  element  modifies  either  the  subject  or  the  pre- 
dicate  througli  the  medium  of  some  other  elemen%  it  is  said 
to  modify  it  indirectly. 

Can  you  givo  an  example  to  illustrate  this  ? 

"A  very  cold  day  is  very  unpleasant," 

Very^  in  this  example,  modifies  unpleasant  directly^  and 
day  indirectly  ;  since  unpleasant  limits  day^  and  very  the 
adjective  unpleasant. 

To  what  part  of  speech,  then,  does  very  belong  ? 

In  such  constructions,  it  is  generally  called  an  Adverb ; 
but,  more  properly  speaking,  it  is  a  Secondary  Adje(?tive. 


MODEL. 


"  My  gold  pen  writes  extremely  well." 

Pen  and  ivrites  are  Principal  elements  ;  because  they 
are  essential  to  the  existence  of  the  sentence  ;  all  the  oth- 
ers are  Subordinate.  The  element  extremely  limits  the 
predicate  writes  indirectly  through  the  medium  of  the  ele- 
ment  ivell ;  it  may,  therefore,  be  called  a  Secondary  Ad- 
verb. 

EXERCISES. 

[Tou  may  novr  dieoriminate  between  Principal  and  Subordinate  elements, 
and  point  out  such  eleiaents  as  limit  the  Principal  ones  indirectly,  as  exhib- 
ited in  the  above  Model.] 

A  wise  man  is  very  useful.  Eliza  is  very  handsome. — 
John  is  tenacious  of  his  opinions.  The  sun  shines  very 
pleasantly.  Mary  walks  very  gracefully.  A  very  good 
pen  writes  extremely  well.  Peter  has  too  much  confi- 
dence. 


12  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

LESSON  X. 

ON   THE   SUBJECT, — SIMPLE,    COMPOUND,    AND   COMPLEX. 

Yoar  attention  was  called  to  the  subject  in  Losson  1st;  now  can  you  tell 
me  what  the  subject  is  ? 

The  Subject  is  that  of  which  something  is  said,  and  ap- 
pears to  be  a  kind  o^  foundation  word. 

Now  tell  me  what  you  understand  by  a  simple  subject? 

The  subject  is  Simple  when  it  consists  of  a  single  word; 
as,  John  writes. 

When  is  the  subject  Compound  ? 

When  it  consists  of  one  or  norc  elements  co-ordinately 
united ;  as,  Henry  and  William  obey  their  teacher. 

When  is  it  Complex  ? 

It  is  Complex  when  it  is  limited  by  an  element  of  the 
second  or  third  class  ;  as,  The  day  of  vengeance  is  at  hand. 

Rem. — The  Complex  subject  is  generally  called  the  Log- 
ical subject. 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  Subjecta,  and  tell  whether  they  are  Simple,  Compound,  or 
Complex.] 

Birds  fly  in  the  air.  John  of  Boston  has  returned. — 
James  and  Joseph  reside  in  New  York.  The  boy  who 
studies,  will  improve.  Eliza  is  handsome.  Mary  and 
Martha  wxnt  to  the  grave. 


LESSON  XL 

OF    THE     PREDICATE — SIMPLE,     COMPOUND,    AND   COMPLEX. 

As  the  Predicate  is  a  very  important  element,  we  will 
call  your  attention  to  it  again. 

Can  you  tell  me  what  the  Predicate  is  ? 

The  Predicate  is  that  which  is  affirmed  or  denied  of  the 
>\ibject. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  13 

Then  is  anything  the  Predicate,  that  can  be  said  of  the  Subject  ? 

It  is. 

A  Verb,  Adjective,  Noun,  or  Pronoun,  can  be  said  of  the  Subject;  can  all 
these  parts  of  speech  be  Predicate  ? 

Certainly ;  for,  of  the  subject,  may  be  predicated  Ac- 
tion, Quality,  or  Identity;  as,  Peter  ivalks,  (Action); 
Solomon  was  wise,  (Quality) ;  John  is  a  student,  (Identity.) 

Rem. — The  verb  ^^  to  he,"  in  Logic,  is  called  the  Copula, 
but,  in  Grammar,  it  is  generally  regarded  as  a  part  of  the 
Predicate. 

When  is  the  predicate  simple  ? 

^  It  is  simple  when  it  consists  of  one  element;  as,  the 
bird  files. 

Rem. — The  verb,  in  such  examples,  is  said  to  include 
both  the  Copula  and  Predicate,  and  is  equivalent  to  "  th-c 
bird  isfii/ing.''' 

When  is  the  predicate  Compound? 

It  is  compound  when  it  is  composed  of  two  or  more 
elements,  united  by  a  co-ordinate  connective ;  as,  King- 
doms rise  amdfalL 

When  is  it  Complex  ? 

It  is  complex  when  limited  by  an  element  of  the  second 
or  third  class ;  as,  Isaac  walked  into  the  field. 

EXERCISES. 

^  [Point  out  the  Predicates,  and  tell  whether  they  are  Simple,  Compound,  or 
Complex,  also  whether  Action,  Quality,  or  Identity  is  predicated] 


The  rivers  flow.  Flowers  bloom  in  the  spring.  Susan 
walks  and  talks.  She  is  wise.  Washington  was  prudent. 
Henry  is  a  student.  James  walks  through  the  fields.  The 
girls  walk  into  the  garden.  David  was  pious  and  brave. 
We  shall  hear  the  news  when  he  comes. 


14  York's  illustratr'k  and 

LESSON  XII. 

OF   rOSSESSIVE   AND   OBJECTIVE   ELEMENTS. 
What  is  the  Posaessive  element  ? 

When  one  substantive  element  limits  another  by  deno- 
ting Possession,  it  maj  be  called  the  Possessive  clement ; 
ai<,  John  8  book. 

Rem. — Since  Johns  limits  book  by  pointing  out  the 
thing  possessed,  it  might,  properly  enough,  be  called  an 
Adjective  element ;  but,  as  in  parsing,  we  call  Johtis  a 
Noun  in  the  Possessive  case,  it  is  better,  perhaps,  to  call 
it  the  Possessive  element. 

What  i«  an  Objective  elament? 

When  a  substantive  element  limits  the  predicate  or 
verbal  clement,  it  is  called  the  Objective  element;  as, 
Peter  struck  Thomas. 

When  the  Ohjective  element  limits  the  predicate  or  verbal  element,  what 
dye3  it  point  out  ? 

It  points  out  the  object  of  its  action.  Thomas,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  foregoing  sentence,  points  out  the  object  of 
the  action^  expressed  by  the  verbal  element  struck.  * 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  Pofaossive  and  Objective  elements  in  the  following  sec- 
teuces.j 

Peter's  dog  bit  John's  finger.  Mary  tore  Eliza's  book. 
James  hid  Susan's  bonnet.  The  boy  lost  the  girl's  gloves. 
Henry  wants  Sylvester's  dog.  Peter  has  lost  bis  book. 
Jane  left  her  shawl. 


LESSON  XIII. 

OP  THE   CONBTRUCTION   OP   ELEMENT?. 

What  do  joii  understand  bj  the  eonetruction  of  Elements? 

The  order  in  which  elements  are  arranged  in  a  sentence, 
is  called  Construction. 


CONSTRUCIIVE   GRAMMAR.  16 

With  what  aro  Adjective  elements  construed? 

With  subtantive  elements. 

When  Adjective  elements  of  the  first  class  aro  assumed  of  their  supers, 
"SThere  are  they  construed? 

They  are  generally  construed  before  them ;  as,  a  tvm 
man,     A  beautiful  lady.     A  studious  boy. 

When  such  elements  are  predicated,  how  are  they  conatrncd  ? 

They  are  generally  construed  after  the  predicate  ; 
as,  she  is  handsome.     James  is  tall. 

Where  are  adjective  elements  of  the  second  or  third  class  construed? 

They  are  generally  construed  after  the  substantive  ele- 
ment ;  as,  a  lady  of  prudence.     The  boy  ivlio  studies. 

With  what  are  Adrerbial  elements  construed  ? 

They  are  construed  with  verbal  elements. 

Can  any  precipe  rule  be  given  for  the  construction  of  Adrerbial  elements 
of  i)x%  first  class  1 

No.  They  should,  however,  be  so  consti-ued  as  will 
best  promote  the  euphony  and  perspicuity  of  the  sentence. 

How  are  Adverbial  elements  of  the  second  and  third  classes  construed? 

They  are  generally  construed  after  the  predicate^  or  be- 
tivecn  its  parts ;  as,  happiness  or  misery  is,  m  a  great 
measure,  placed  in  our  own  hands.  Isaac  walked  into 
the  field* 


PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES. 

[You  may  now  analyze  the  following  sentences  as  directed  in  precedlfl^ 
icodels.J 

Henry  resides  in  New  York.  The  young  ladies  who 
-study  their  lessons,  improve  rapidly  Mary  i?  handsome. 
A  wise  man  is  useful.  The  lowerini:  clouds  arc  movin;: 
slowly.  She  walks  in  the  garden.  A  man  of  studious 
habits  grows  in  knowledge.  The  sun  shines  through  the 
window. 


16  York's  illustrated  and 

LESSON  XIV. 

OP  MONOLOGIC  ANALYSIS    OF  SENTENCES. 
What  do  you  understand  by  Monologic  Analysis  of  eontenccs? 

It  is  resolving  sentences  into  clauses  and  phrases. 

What  is  each  eleinent  called  ? 

It  is  called  a  member,  or  mono  as  denominated  by  Mr. 
James  Brown  of  Philadelphia. 

What  characters  are  used  in  this  Analysis? 

The  loading  clause  is  inclosed  in  brackets,  and  all  others 
in  parentheses,  as  exhibited  in  the  following   example: 
[Elijah  smote  the  water]  (of  Jordan]  (with  his  mantle.) 

What  can  you  say  of  the  words  of  which  each  member  is  cocaposed  ? 

They  have  an  inseparable,  constructive  relation  to  each 
other,  and,  in  parsing,  they  must  be  disposed  of  in  their 
own  members  respectively. 

What  are  such  words  as  give  members,  called  ? 

They  are  called  member-givers. 

What  are  they  called  in  grammar,  generally  ? 

They  are  generally  called  Conjunctions;  Connective 
Adverbs,  Relative  Pronouns,  and  Prepositions  ;  but  they 
might  all  be  included  in  one  general  term,  Connectives. 

How  may  these  connectives  or  memher-givcra  bo  divided? 

They  may  be  divided,  first,  into  such  as  give  clauses  and 
phrases. 

Which  of  them  give  clauses  ? 

Conjunctions,  Connective  Adverbs,  and  Relative  Pro- 
nouns. 

Which  phrases  ?  1 

Prepositions. 

In  what  other  respects  may  they  bo  divided? 

They  may  be  divided,  secondly,  into  Co  ordinate  and 
subordinate. 

How  would  you  deQne  the  co-ordinate  connectives  ? 

The  Co-ordinate  connectives  are  sucl:  as  unite  clauses 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAK.  17 

or  members  of  equal  rank  in  construction.     They  are  and^ 
but,  or,  nor,  and  yet. 

How  would  you  define  the  Subordinatee  ? 

The  subordinate  connectives  are  such  as  join  on  mem- 
bers of  subordinate  rank  in  construction. 

What  do  they  include? 

They  include  Relative  Pronouns,  Connective  Adverbs, 
Prepositions,  and  some  Conjunctions,  such  as,  if,  for^ 
though,  &c. 

Rem. — Connectives  should  always  be  included  in  the 
members  which  they  give ;  but,  as  they  are  connectives, 
they  will,  of  course,  bear  some  relation  to  some  other 
members. 

EXERCISES. 

[Analyze  the  following  sentences  as  exhibited  m  the  above  example? 

The  sun  shines  through  the  window,  upon  the  floor.  The 
day  of  the  Lord  is  at  hand.  We  shall  hear  the  news  when 
the  messenger  arrives.  The  patient  had  died  before  the 
doctor  arrived.  The  young  lady  who  instructs  me  in 
grammar,  labors  faithfully.  John  has  gone  into  the  coun- 
try. Jesus  went  unto  the  mount  of  Olives.  Dagon  fell 
upon  his  face  before  the  ark  of  the  living  God. 

Rem. — In  exercising  the  class,  these  or  similar  sentences 
should  be  written  upon  the  black-board  or  slates. 


LESSON  XV. 

DENDROLOGY,   OR   CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES. 
What  is  the  literal  meaning  of  Dendrology  ? 

A  discourse  upon  trees. 

In  what  sense  is  it  here  employed  ? 

It  is  here  employed  in  an  accommodated  sense,  to  point 


18  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

out  the  constructive  relation  which  the  members  of  a  sen- 
tence bear  to  each  other,  as  illustrated  by  the  frame-work 
of  a  tree. 

What  part  of  a  sentence  is  compared  to  the  Trunk  of  a  tree? 

The  leading  clause,  or  that  part,  which,  like  the  Trunk 
of  a  tree,  can  stand  alone,  or  make  sense  of  itself. 

What  elements  must  the  Trunk  or  leading  clause  contain? 

It  must  contain  the  subject  and  predicate,  and  all  ele- 
ments of  the  first  kind  which  modify  them,  if  any  are 
used. 

To  what  are  the  subordinate  members  compared? 

They  are  compared  to  the  Branches  of  a  tree. 
Why? 

Because  as  the  Branches  of  a  Tree  depend  upon,  or  are 
supported  by  the  Trun*  ;  so*  the  Subordinate  members 
depend  upon  the  leading  clause,  either  directly  or  indi- 
rectly in  construction,  as  illustrated  in  Diagram.  (See 
Lesson  XVII.) 


LESSON  XVI. 

DENDROLOGY,   OR   CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES  CONTINUED* 
How  many  Orders  of  members  are  there  ? 

There  are  two,  viz :  Trunk  and  Branch. 

What  is  meant  by  Notation  ? 

By  Notation,  is  meant  the  actual  expression  of  all  or 
only  a  part  of  the  words  of  members. 

How  many  Notations  are  there  ? 

Two,  viz :  Plenary  and  Implenary. 

When  is  a  member  of  the  Plenary  Notation  ?    • 

It  is  Plenary  when  all  the  words  belonging  to  it,  arc 
expressed ;  as,  [Henry  went]  (into  the  field.) 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR.  19 

When  is  a  member  of  the  Implenary  Notation  ? 

It  is  Implenary  when  part  of  the  words  belonging  to 
it,  are  not  expressed  ;  as,  [He  gave  (me)  an  apple.]  That 
is.  He  gave  an  apple  to  me. 

What  is  meant  by  the  Integrity  of  a  member  ? 

Integrity  respects  its  entireness  or  unbroken  state. 

How  many  integrities  are  there  ? 

There  are  two,  viz:  Perfect  and  Imperfect. 

What  is  meant  by  the  Perfect  Integrity? 

The  Perfect  Integrity  of  a  member  is  the  entireness 
produced  by  the  juxta-position  of  all  its  words ;  as,  [He 
gave  an  apple]  [to  me.) 

When  is  a  member  of  the  Imperfect  Integrity? 

It  is  of  the  Imperfect  Integrity  when  it  is  broken  by 
the  intervention  of  some  other  member ;  as,  The  law  (of 
the  Lord)  is  perfect. 

What  is  meant  by  the  Rank  of  a  member? 

The  Rank  of  a  member  respects  the  frame-work  grade 
which  the  sub-members  derive  from  their  supers. 

What  can  you  say  of  the  number  of  Ranks  ? 

The  number  is  indefinite — some  sentences  having  more, 
and  some  less. 

When  is  a  member  of  the  firet  rank  ? 

It  is  of  the  first  rank  when  construed  with  the  Trunk 
member  or  leading  clause. 

When  of  the  second,  third,  ic.?j 

It  is  of  the  second  when  construed  with  one  of  the  first ; 
of  the  third  when  construed  with  one  of  the  second,  and 
CO  on. 

How  should  the  Ranks  bo  distinguished  ? 

By  figures  written  over  the  members;  as,  1,  2,  o,  &c. 


20  York's  illustrative  and 

LESSON  XVII. 

DENDROLOGY  OR  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES 
CONTINUED. 

What  does  the  Position  of  members  respect? 

The  position  of  a  member  respects  the  place  it  occupies 
with  respect  to  its  super-member  or  members. 

How  many  Positions  have  members  ? 

Three,  viz :  Juxta,  Disjuxta,  and  BinaL 

When  is  a  member  of  the  Juxta-position  * 

It  is  of  the  Juxta-position  "when  construed  next  to  its 
super-member  ;  as,  [Martha  went]  (to  the  grave,) 

When  of  the  Dhjuxta.poeition  ? 

It  is  of  the  Disjuxta-position  when  it  is  separated  from 
its  super-member ;  as,  [Martha  went]  (with  Mary)  {to  the 
garve.) 

Rem. — The  learner  will  observe  that  the  member,  to  the 
grave,  is  construed  with  the  leading  clause,  Martha  loent, 
but  it  is  separated  from  it,  by  the  interposition  of  the 
member,  with  Mary. 

When  is  a  member  of  the  Binal-position  ? 

It  is  of  the  Binal-position  when  it  includes  both  the 
juxta  and  disjuxta  positions ;  as,  [Martha  was  the  sister] 
(of  Mary) ;  [hut  she  ivas  not  the  sister)  (of  Elizabeth.) 

R^M. — The  learner  will  observe  that  the  member,  but  she 
tvas  not  the  sister,  is  construed  with  both  the  members  that 
precede  it,  and  is  juxta  with  respect  to  one,  and  disjuxta 
with  respect  to  the  other ;  hence  it  is  said  to  include  both. 

What  is  meant  by  a  axiper'-mcmber  ? 

A  super-member,  in  rank,  is  directly  above  that  mem- 
ber which  is  annexed  to  it. 

What  is  a  tuh-memher  f 

A  sub-member,  in  rank,  is  directly  below  the  member  to 
which  it  is  annexed. 

The  principles  unfolded  in  the  preceding  lessons,  on 
Dendrology  or  Construction,  in  which  the  verbal  frame- 
work of  a  sentence  is  compared  to  the  frame-work  of  a 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR. 


21 


Tree,  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  sentence  and  Di- 
agram. 

11  2  3 

[A  certain  Eoaiieror  (of  China),  (on  his  accession)  (to  the  throne)  (of  his 

1  3 

ancesters),  commanded  a  general  release]  (of  all  those)  (who  had  oeen  iin- 

3 
prisoned)  (for  debt.] 

A  certain  Emperor  com- 
manded a  ffcneral  release^  is  a 
member  of  the  Trunk  order, 
Plenary  notation,  Imperfect 
integrity,  and  of  the  Affirma- 
tive kind,  because  it  expresses 
the  hightcst  degree  of  verbal 
force. 

Of  China^  is  a  member  of 
the  Branch  order,  Plenary 
notation.  Perfect  integrity, 
first  rank,  juxta-position,  and 
reads  with  the  Trunk  for  its 
super  ;  thus,  A  certain  Emperor  of  China  commanded  a 
general  release. 

On  his  accession,  is  a  member  of  the  Branch  order.  Ple- 
nary notation.  Perfect  integrity,  first  rank,  disjuxta-posi- 
tion,  and  reads  with  the  Trunk  for  its  super.  A  certain 
Emperor  commanded  a  general  release  on  his  accession. 

To  the  throne,  is  a  member  of  the  Branch  or'^er.  Plena- 
ry notation,  Perfect  integrity,  second  rank,  juxta-position, 
and  reads  vv'ith  a  member  of  the  first  rank  for  its  super. — 
On  his  accession  to  the  throne. 

Of  his  ancesters,  is  a  member  of  the  Branch  order.  Ple- 
nary notation,  Perfect  integrity,  third  rank,  and  juxta-po- 
sition, and  reads  with  the  second  rank  for  its  super.  To 
the  throne  of  his  ancestors. 

Of  all  those  jyersons,  is  a  member  of  ihe  Branch  order,  Tm- 
plenary  notation.  Perfect  integrity,  first  rank,  juxta-posi- 
tion, and  reads  with  the  Trunk  for  its  super.  A  certain 
Emperor  commanded  a  general  release  of  all  those  persons. 
Who  had  been  imprisoned,  is  a  member  of  the  Branch  or- 
der. Plenary  notation.  Perfect  integrity,  8eco7id  rimk,  ^\ix- 

3 


22  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

ta-position,  and  reads  with  a  member  of  the  first  rank  for 
its  super.     Of  all  those  ^vho  had  been  imprisoned. 

For  debt,  is  a  member  of  the  Branch  order,  Plenary  no- 
tation, Perfect  integrity,  third  rank,  and  juxta-position, 
and  reads  with  the  second  rank  for  its  sxi.per.  Who  had 
been  imprisoned /or  debt. 

By  inspecting  the  Diagram,  the  learner  will  perceive  that 
branches  No.  1  depend  directly  upon  the  Trunk  or  leading 
clause,  that  branches  No.  2  depend  directly  upon  No*.  1, 
and  that  those  of  No.  3  depend  directly  upon  No.  2,  .but 
that  all  depend  directly  or  indirectly  upon  the  Trunk  or 
leading  member. 

Which  ia  the  Trunk  or  leading  clause  in  the  foregoing  sentence? 

A  certain  Emperor  commanded  a  general  release. 
Why  ? 

Because,  like  the  Trunk  of  a  Tree,  it  can  stand  alone,  or 
make  sense  of  itself. 

Why  is  it  of  the  Plenary  notation  ? 

Because  each  word  belonging  to  it,  is  expressed. 

Why  of  the  Imperfect  Integrity  ? 

Because  its  entireness  is  broken  by  the  member,  of 
China. 

Why  of  the  affirmative  kind  / 

Because  it  expresses  the  highest  degree  of  verbal  force. 

Why  is  on  hia  accession  of  the  Branch  order? 

Because  it  depends  upon  the  Trunk,  and  cannot  make 
sense  of  itself. 

Why  of  the  first  rank  ? 

Because  it  depends  directly  upon  the  Trunk  or  leading 
member  for  its  super. 

Why  of  the  dwjwarta-position  ? 

Because  it  is  separated  from  its  super,  or  the?  member 
with  which  it  has  a  constructive  relation. 

Why  is  the  member,  to  the  throne,  of  the  second  rank  ? 

Because  it  depends  upon  the  first  for  its  super. 


•CONSTRiUCTiyE    GRAMMAR.  28 

Why  is  thQmemhQT,  of  hie  ancestors,  of  the  thii-d  rank/ 

Because  it  depends  upon  the  second  rank  for  its  super. 

Kem.  To  Teachers.  The  Teacher  may  ask  similar 
■questions  until  the  young  learners  become  familiar  with  all 
the  terms  used  in  this  nomenclature. 

EXERCISES, 

[Analyze  and  Construe  the  following  sentences  as  exhibited  in  the  forego- 
'ing  Models.] 

^       .  .  1 

[A  beam  (of  tranquility)  often  plays]  (around  the  heart) 

2  1  ^ 

(of  the  truly  pious  man).     [Martha  went]  (with  Mary),  (to 

2  2 

the  grave)  (of  Lazarus).     [There  was  a  marriage]  (in  Cana) 

2  1  1 

(of  Galilee).    [Dagon  fell]  (upon  his  face)  (before  the  ark) 

2  1  ^ 

(of  the  living  God).     [^The  young  lady  (who  instructs  me) 

2  12 

(in   Grammar),  lives']  (in  the  city)  (of  New  York).    [Lot 
fled]  (with  his  two  daughters),  (to  the  mountains).    [Mary 

1  1  2 

remained]  (in  the  house)  (with  the  Jews)  (who  had  visited 

11  2 

her).    [Time  slept]  (on  flowers,)  (and  lent  his  glasses)  (to 
hope).    (On  that  night,)  [sleep  departed]  (from  the  king.) 

{The  Lord,  (into  his  garden,)  comes  ;] 

(The  spices  yield  a  rich  perfume ;) 

(The  lillies  grow  and  thrive.) 

Rem. — After  the  class  has  been  fully  practiced  on  the 
above  exercises,  sentences  should  be  written  upon  the  black- 
board or  slate  without  the  analysis. 


LESSON  XVIII. 

OF  ALLIGATION   OF    SENTENCES. 
What  is  Alligation  ? 

It  is  the  art  of  combining  the  words  of  a  sentence,  by 


24  York's  illustrative  and 

lines  Trliich  indicate  the  ffovcrniyient,  relatiorby  and  connec- 
tion of  the  several  parts. 

How  are  linos  which  indicate  govc-nment  drawn  ? 

They  are  drawn  over. 

How  are  all  others  drawn  ? 

They  are  drawn  under,  as  shown  in  the  following  Dia- 
gram : 


Line  1  shows  Henry  governs  went,  and  reads  with  it — 
Henry  went.  Line  2  shows  with  connects  ivent  and  me, 
and  reads  with  them — went  with  me.  Line  3  shows  that 
with  governs  me,  and  reads  with  it — with  me.  Line  4 
shows  that  to  connects  went  and  shij},  and  reads  with 
them — went  to  ship.  Line  5  shows  to  governs  sliip,  and 
reads  with  it — to  ship.  Line  t)  shows  that  the  helongs  to 
iiJiip,  and  reads  with  it — the  ship. 

The  object  of  this  exercise  is  not  only  to  give  an  occu- 
lar  illustration  of  the  various  grammatical  connections  and 
relations  which  words  ])ear  to  each  otlier  in  a  sentence, 
hut  also  to  show  that  words  which  are  grammatically  rela- 
ted to  each  other,  make  sense  when  read  together. 

EXERCISES. 

[Write  the  following  and  similar  sentences  on  slates  or  the  Black-board, 
and  give  the  alligation  as  exhibited  in  the  above  Diagram.] 

The  old  fox  heard  the  hunter's  horn  sounding.  Foxes 
kill  Avonien's  geese.  I  see  a  man  walking  through  the 
fields.  The  day  elides  swectlv  o'er  our  heads.  That  old 
man  hibors  in  the  field.  Jolin  walked  with  his  sisters  to 
church.  ISIary  studies  her  lessons  well.  The  moon  shines 
through  ])rokcn  clouds.  The  lowering  clouds  are  moving 
glowly.     Elizabeth  went  into  the  hill-country. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR^  *25 

PART     SECOND. 

LESSON  L 

OF    LANGUAGE, 

What  is  language  ? 

Language  is  the  medium  through  which  mind  travels  to 
mind,  and  thereby  communicates  thoughts,  feelin^3,  de- 
sires, and  affections. 

Po  brutes,  in  any  sense,  possess  the  power  of  language  ? 

In  some  sense,  thej  do  ;  since,  hj  various  inarticulate 
sounds,  thev  make  known  their  wants  and  sufferinjis. 

Hov  many  kic'ds  of  language  are  there? 

Two,  namely,  spoken  and  written. 

What  are  the  elements  of  spoken  language  ? 

They  are  simple  sounds,  uttered  by  the  human  voice. 

What  are  the  elements  of  written  language  ? 

They  are  letters  or  characters,  invented  to  represent 
simple  sounds. 

May  not  Jesticulation  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of  language  ? 

It  may  ;  since  men,  who  are  barbarians  to  each  other, 
can  understand  each  other  by  means  of  signs  or  jesturoe. 

Since  language  is  the  medium  of  comm«nicating  thought:?,  is  it  not  im- 
portant that  it  should  be  understood/ 

It  is;  and,  hence,  arises  the  necessity  of  studyino-  tho- 
roughly the  Grammar  of  the  language  which  we  employ 
for  such  medium  of  communication  of  thought. 


LESSON   II. 

OF  GRAMMAR. 

What  is  grnmraar? 

Grammar  is  the  science  of  language,  or,  more  litorallv. 
the  science  of  letters,  or  the  science  of  sounds. 


26  YORK'S  ILLUSTllATIVE  AND 

What  do  letters  represent  ? 

They  represent  simple  sounds. 

How  many  simple  sounds  are  there  in  th*  English  language  f 

Thirtj-eiglit. 

How  many  letters  or  signs  are  there  to  represent  these  sounds  ? 

There  are  but  ttetjusix  in  the  English  Alphabet. 

What  necessarily  follows  from  there  being  more  sounds  than  letters  f 

Some  letters  must  represent  more  sounds  than  one. 

What  must  necessarily  arise  from  this  .' 

Much  obscurity  and  many  provincialisms. 

How  many  letters  should  there  be  in  a  perfect  language  f 

As  many  as  there  are  simple  sounds. 

How  are  the  letters  of  the  English  Alphabet  generally  divided  t 

Into  Vowels  and  Consonants, 

How  are  the  Consonants  sub-divided/ 

Into  Mutes  and  Semi-vowels, 

Is  this  division  founded  in  philosophic  truth  .' 

No ;  for  every  sound  may  be  uttered  in  it's  own,  indi- 
vidual, and  elementary  character ;  yet,  it  is  said,  the  Mutes 
cannot  be  sounded  at  all  without  the  aid  of  a  vowel. 

What  would  bo  a  more  philosophic  and  truthful  division  of  the  letters  of 
the  Alphabet? 

A  more  truthful  division  would  be  into  three  classes, 
viz:  Vowels  or  Tonics,  Sub-vowels  or  Sub-tonics,  and 
Atonies  or  Aspirates,  as  exhibited  in  the  following  Table 
in  which  are  displayed  the  thirty-eight  elementary  sounds, 
and  the  manner  of  representing  them : 


-#»^ 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR. 


27 


THIRTY- 

EIGHT 

SIMPLE 

SOUNDS. 

15  Vowels. 

14  Sub-vowels. 

9 

Aspirates. 

a 

in 

ale 

b 

in  bow 

P 

in  pin 

a 

arm 

d 

"  duty 

t 

"   tin 

a 

all 

g 

"  gay 

sh 

"  shade 

a 

an 

1 

"   love 

• 
k 

"  kite 

e 

eve 

trn 

"  man 

s 

"   sin 

e 

end 

'n 

"  no 

f 

"  fume 

i 

ile 

ng 

"  song 

th 

"  thin 

1 

in 

r 

''  roll 

h 

"  hat 

0 

old 

th 

"  thou 

wh 

"  what 

•  • 

0 

lose 

4 

"  vow 

•  •• 

b 

on 

w 

"  wo 

u 

tube 

y 

"  yoke 

u 

np 

z 

^'   zone 

u 

full 

s 

"  azure 

oil 

our 

Rem. — rt  will  be  observed  that  /,  x^  and  ch  are  not 
found  in  the  above  table ;  the  reason  of  this  is,  they  do 
not  represent  simple  sounds,  but  compound  ones.  J  rep- 
resents the  sound  of  d  in  dar^  and  of  z  in  azure  ;  as,  Job, 
John,  &c. 

Rem.  to  Teachers. — It  is  not  intended  that  the  table  of 
elementary  sounds  should  be  committed  to  memory  by  the 
pupils  ;  but  the  Teacher  should  utter  the  sounds  accurately 
in  their  elementary  character,  the  pupils  uttering  them 
after  him. 


28  York's  illustrative  and 

(For  further  information  concerning  the  simple  sounds 
of  the  English  Language  and  the  Analysis  of  words,  the 
learner  is  referred  to  the  Illustrative  and  Constructive 
Grammar,  Part  Second.) 


LESSON  IIL 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


What  is  English  Grammar? 

It  is  the  science  of  the  Enclisfe  Lano;uage. 

"What  does  it  comprise/ 

It  comprises  both  a  Science  and  an  Art. 

H  hat  does  it  teach  as  an  Art  ? 

As  an  Art,  it  teaches  how  the  English  Language  should 
he  written  and  spoken. 

What  as  a  Science  / 

As  a  Science,  it  teaches  why  one  form  of  speech  should 
he  used  rather  than  another. 

What,  then,  is  the  difference  between  Science  and  Art? 

Science  tells  why  a  thing  is  done ;  Art  how  it  is  done. 

What,  then,  Tvill  English  Grammar,  well  understood  both  as  a  Science  and 
an  Art,  enable  one  to  do  ? 

It  will  enable  one  to  speak  and  write  the  English  Lan- 
guage correctly. 


LESSON  IV. 

THE  DIVISION  OP  GRAMMAR, 
Into  how  many  parts,  is  Grammar  divided  ? 

Into  four,  viz :  Orthography,  Etymology,  Syntax  ano 
Prosody. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  29 

What  does  Orthography  teach .' 

The  name  and  power  of  letters,  and  the  art  of  spelling. 

Where  must  this  art  bo  chiefly  acquired  ? 

Prom  the  Spelling-book  and  Dictionary. 

Of  what  does  Etymology  treat  ? 

Of  the  different  parts  of  speech,  their  various  inflections, 
a-nd  the  derivation  of  words. 

What  does  Syntax  tea  h  ? 

It  teaches  the  correct  construction  and  arrangement  of 
sentences. 

Of  what  does  Prosody  treat  ? 

It  treats  of  the  just  pronunciation  of  sentences,  and  the 
rules  of  versification. 


LESSON  V. 

PARTS  OP  SPEECH  OR  CLASSIFICATION  OF  WORDS. 
Into  how  many  Classes,  are  words  naturally  divided? 

Into  two,  namely,  Primary  and  Secondary. 

What  are  Primary  words  ? 

Those  that  are  essential  to  the  language  of  men,  to  which 
all  others  bear  a  subordinate  relation. 

What  parts  of  speech  are  they  ? 

The  Noun  and  Verb. 

Why  are  they  Primary  f 

Because,  of  these,  a  complete  proposition  may  be  con- 
structed ;  as,  God  is.    Time  flies. 

What  are  Secondary  words  ? 

Xhey  are  of  subordinate  use  in  language,  sustaining  a 
branch  relation  to  the  Primary. 

How  many  sorts  of  words  or  Parts  of  Speech  are  there  ? 

There  are  ten,  viz  :  the  Noun,  Verb,  Participle,  Pronoun, 


30  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

Article,  Adjective,  Adverb,  Preposition,  Conjunction,  and 
Interjection  or  Exclamation. 

Rem.  Grammarians  generally  name  nine  Parts  of  Speech, 
excluding  the  Participle  ;  but  we  see  no  sufficient  reason  for 
this. 

What  is  a  ^'oun  ? 

It  is  the  name  of  anything ;  as,  Man,  virtue. 

TThatisa  Verb? 

A  Verb  is  a  word  which  asserts  or  affirms,  or  expresses 
action ;  as.  The  boy  reads.     The  QhM plays. 

TThat  is  a  participle  ? 

A  Participle  is  a  word,  derived  from  a  verb,  and  partakes 
of  the  nature  of  a  verb,  and  also  of  an  adjective  ;  but'Se- 
pends  upon  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  construction ;  as,  I  see 
a  hivdi  flying. 

What  is  a  Pronoun  t 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun,  and  gener- 
ally to  avoid  its  repetition ;  as,  James  reads,  and  he  will 
soon  read  well. 

What  is  an  Article  f 

An  article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  nouns  to  limit  the  extent 
of  their  signification ;  as,  A  man.     The  boys. 

What  is  an  Adjective? 

An  adjective  is  a  word  joined  to  a  noun  to  limit  its 
meaning,  or  express  its  quality  ;  as,  A  beautiful  lady.  That 
river. 

What  is  an  Adverb  1 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  verbs, 
participles,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs  ;  as,  Mary  writes 
very  well. 

What  is  a  Preposition  / 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  generally  placed  before  some 
noun  or  pronoun  which  it  governs ;  it,  also,  shows  the  re- 
lation which  this  word  bears  to  some  other  word  which 
precedes  it  in  construction :  as,  Henry  went  with  me. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  81 

"What  is  a  Conjunction .' 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  which  joins  together  parts  of  a 
sentence,  or  parts  of  a  discourse  in  a  regular  construction  ; 
as,  John  goes  to  school,  and  learns  well. 

What  is  an  Interjection  or  Exclamation  .' 

An  Exclamation  generally  expresses  some  emotion  of 
the  speaker,  but  has  no  dependent  construction  ;  as,  "  Alas ! 
and  did  my  Saviour  bleed?" 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  different  parts  of  Speech  in  the  following  sentences.] 

The  river  flows  slowly.  The  sun  shines  by  day,  and  the 
moon  gives  light  by  night.  Henry  lost  his  hat.  Alas ! 
that  man  has  made  a  fatal  mistake.  I  see  a  man  walking. 
John  went ;  but  Peter  stayed. 


LESSON  VI, 

OF  NOUNS. 

What  is  a  Noun  f 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  any  thing ;  as,  Man,  Virtue. 

How  many  kinds  ef  nouns  are  there? 

There  are  two,  viz :  Proper  and  Common. 

What  is  a  Proper  noun  ? 

A  Proper  noun  is  the  name  of  an  individual  person  or 
thing  ;  as,  Mary,  Delaware. 

What  is  a  Common  noun  ? 

A  Common  noun  is  a  name  common  to  a  whole  class  of 
persons  or  things  ;  as  Man,  river. 

What  is  a  Common  noun,  comprising  several  persons  or  things  in  one  cqL 
fectivc  hoiiy,  called  * 

A  Collective  noun,  or  Noun  of  multitute ;  as.  Commit^ 
♦tee,  army. 


3:^  York's  illustrative  and 

What  belong  to  Noun?  ? 

To  nouns  belong  Gender,  Person,  Number,  and  Case. 


LESSON  VII. 

OF  GENDER  AND  PERSON. 
What  is  Gender  ? 

Gender  is  the  distinction  of  sex, 

IIow  many  sexes  are  there  ? 

Two,  viz:  Male  and  Female. 

How  many  Genders  are  there? 

Since  there  are  but  two  sexes,  strictly  speaking,  there 
are  but  two  genders. 

How  many  Genders  are  thought,  by  some  grammarians,  to  bo  convenient 
in  parsing  ? 

Four,   viz :  Masculine,    Feminine,    Neuter,    and    Com- 
mon. 

What  does  the  Masculine  Gender  denote  .' 

The  Masculine  Gender  includes  all  males;  as,  Man, 
horse. 

What  does  the  Feminine  denote  ? 

The  Feminine  includes  2X\  females;  as,  woman,  hen. 

What  does  the  Neuter  include? 

The  Neuter  includes  such  as  have  no  sex ;  as,  Chjiir, 
river. 

Bow  may  the  Common  Gender  be  defined  ? 

Nouns  which  are  equally  applied  to  both  sexes,  are 
called  Common  Gender ;  as.  Friend,  child. 

RexM. — The  application  of  the  Neuter  and  Common 
Genders  in  parsing,  is  of  little  or  no  practical  utility ; 
since  it  adds  nothing  to  the  sense. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  33 

What  is  Person  in  grammar  f 

Person    distinguishes   the   relation    of  a   noun    to   the 
speaker. 

JIow  man}-  Persons  bave  nouns? 

Thr^e,  viz  :  the  First,  Second,  and  Third. 

What  does  the  First  Person  denote  ? 

It  denotes  the  speaker  ;  as  7,  John,  saw  him. 

What  the  Second  Person  1 

The  Second  Person  denotes  the  person  or  thing  spoken  to, 
or  addressed  ;  as,  James,  I  desire  you  to  study. 

What  the  Third  Person  ? 

The  Third  Person  denote^   the   person  spoken   of,  or 
ahout  ;  as,  Peter  wept  bitterly. 


LESSON  YIII. 

OF   NUMBER. 


Whatia  Number  / 

Number  is  the  distinction  o^  unity  ^indi  plurality. 

How  many  numbers  have  nouns? 

Two,  viz  ;  the  "Singular  and  Plural. 

What  does  the  Singular  number  imply? 

It  implies  unity,  or  but  one  ;  as,  A  hook. 

What  does  the  Plural  number  denote  ? 

It  denotes 2^lurality,  or  more  than  one;  as,  Books. 

How  is  the  Plural  of  nouns  formed? 

The  Plural    is    generally  formed  by  annexing  s  or  C9 
to  the  singular. 

When  is  •  only  iinncxcd  ? 

When  it  will  coalesce  in  sound  with  the  other  letters  ;  at^. 
Table,  tables. 


M  York's  illustrated  and 

When  is  ea  annexec  ? 

When  swill  not  coalesce  in  sound  with  the  preceding  let- 
ters; as,  Branch,  ^rawc/^es. 

I8  the  Plural  of  nouns  formed  in  any  other  way  1 

Yes,  in  various  ways. 

Mention  a  few  of  them. 

1.  Nouns  ending  in y,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  form  their 
plurals  by  changing  y  into  ^,  and  annexing  es  ;  as,  Fly,/ies. 
Spy,  spies.  , 

2.  Fifteen  nouns  in  f  or  fe,  viz:  beef,  calf,  elf,  half, 
leaf,  loaf,  self,  shea^f,  shelf,  thief,  wharf,  wolf,  life, 
knife,  and  wife,  form  their  plurals  by  changing  /  into  v, 
and  annexing  es  or  s;  as,  Beef,  beeves.  Wife,  wives  ; 
other  nouns,  in  /  or,  fe,  form  their  plurals  in  the  regu- 
lar way;  as,  Dwarf,  dwarfs.  Handkerchief,  handker- 
chiefs. 

3.  Some  nouns  arc  very  irregular  in  the  formation 
of  their  plurals ;  as,  Man,  men.     Child,  children,  &c. 

Do  Proper  nouns  admit  of  a  plural  ? 

They  do  not ;  for,  in  such  case,  they  would  become  Com- 
mon; as,  The  twelve  Ccesars.     The  Plates  oHhe  Sige. 


LESSON  IX. 

OF    CASE. 


What  is  meant  by  Case .' 

Case,  as  applied  in  Grammar,  distinguishes  the  rela- 
tion of  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  a  verb,  participle,  prepo- 
sition, or  another  noun. 

llow  many  cases  have  nouns  and  pronouns .' 

Three,  viz  :  the  Nominative,  Possessive,  and  Objective. 

Trhat  relation  does  the  Nominative  Case  bear  to  the  verb  ? 

It   bears   the   relation  of  subject;  as,  John  walks ;  it 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  35 

is,  also,    said  to  be  in  the  Nominative  when  predicated 
of  the  subject  ;  as  John  is  a  student.     It  is  1. 

What  relatloQ  does  the  Possessive  Case  show  / 

It  shows  the  relation  oi possession  or  ownership;  as,  Pe- 
ter's  ivifes  mother.     Henry  s  horse. 

Rem.  Some  nouns,  having  the  Possessive /(?rm,  do  not 
imply  ownership  ,  they  are.  strictly  speaking,  Specifying 
Adjectives  ;  as,  Harriet  makes  ladies'  bonnets.  Johnson 
sells  bot/s'  hats. 

Wh&t  relation  doec  the  Objective  case  show  ? 

The   Objective  case  shows  the  relation  of  an  object,  and 
is  either  the    object  of  an  action,  or  of  a  relation  ;  as 
Charles  struck  John  on  the  head. 

When  is  the  Objective  ease  the  object  of  an  action  ? 

It  is  the  object  of  an  action  Avhen  it  is  governed  by  a 
verb  or  participle. 

When  the  object  of  a  relation  ? 

It  is  the  object  of  a  relation  when  governed  by  a  prepo- 
sition. 


LESSON  X. 

OP   PARSING. 
What  is  Parsing  1 

In  Parsing  a  word,  I  first  name  the  part  of  speech  or 
class  of  words  to  which  it  belongs. 

What  next? 

I  next  mention  the  properties  or  accidents  belonging  to 
the  word. 

What  else  ? 

I  then  state  its  agreement  or  government,  as  the  case 
may  be,  and  quote  the  rule. 

I  will  now  present  you  with  a  Model  for  Paising. 


86  York's  illustrative  and 

MODEL. 

James  loves  Marj's  sister. 

James  is  a  Proper  Doun,  Masculine  gender,  third  per- 
son, singular  number,  and  nominative  case  to  the  verb 
loves,  according  to  Rule  1.     (Repeat  Rule.) 

Loves  is  a  regular,  Transitive  verb.  Active  voice.  Indi- 
cative mode,  Present  tense,  and  of  the  third  person,  sin- 
gular number,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  John,  accord- 
in  g:  to  rule  (3. 

CD 

Marifs  is  a  proper  noun,  feminine  gender,  third  per- 
son, singular  number,  and  in  the  possessive  case,  governed 
by  sister,  according  to  Rule  4. 

Sister  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  feminine  gender,  third 
person,  singular  number,  and  in  the  objective  case,  gov- 
erned by  the  verb  loves,  according  to  Rule  19. 

EXERCISES. 

Peter's  dog  bit  John's  finger.  Foxes  kill  women's  geese. 
El  za's  cat  caught  a  rat.  James  lost  Henry's  ball.  Rivers 
flow.  Birds  fly.  Arthur's  dog  killed  Henry's  cat.  Rab- 
bits eat  people's  peas.  Thomas  hm*t  Robert's  finger.  Boys 
love  play.  ^ 


LESSON  XL 

OF   VERBS. 


What  :s!  a  Verb? 

A  Verb  is  a  word  which  asserts  or  affirms,  or  expresses 
action  ;  as,  The  river /ows.    He  ivent  to  join  the  army. 

Rem. — Perhaps  no  single  definition  can  fully  unfold  the 
varied  import  of  the  verb;  but,  in  some  sense,  it  may  bo 
said,  under  all  circumstances,  to  express  something  of  the 
nature  of  an  affirmation. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  37 

How  may  the  Verb  be  divided  ? 

It  may  be  divided  into  Transitive  and  Intransitive,  Re- 
gular and  Irregular,  Auxiliary  and  Defective. 

When  is  a,  ^erb  Transitive  ? 

When  it  has  the  power  to  affect  an  object ;  as,  Jane 
writes  letters. 

Must  the  object  of  a  Transitive  verb  always  be  expressed  .? 

No ;  if  the  object  is  obvious,  it  need  not  always  be  ex- 
pressed ;  as,  The  boy  reads,  L  e.  he  reads  hooks  or  some- 
thing else. 

How  are  Transitive  verbs  distinguished  ? 

By  voice. 

What  is  meant  by  Voice  ? 

Voice  has  been  defined  to  be  the  particular  mode  of  in- 
flecting or  conjugating  the  verb,  or  it  may  be  said  to  ex- 
press the  condition  of  its  subject  as  active  or  passive. 

Mow  many  Voices  have  verbs  ? 

Two,  viz :  Active  and  Passive. 

When  is  a  verb  in  the  Active  Voice  f 

It  is  in  the  Active  voice,  when  the  nominative  performs 
the  action ;  as,  Urutus  slew  Caesar.  Here  Brutus  the  sub- 
ject, performs  the  action. 

When  is  a  verb  in  the  Passive  Voice? 

It  is  in  the  Passive  Voice  when  the  subject  receives  the 
action  ;  as,  Caesar  wag  slain  by  Brutus. 

Rem. — In  this  example,  Caesar  is  the  subject  of  the  verb, 
was  slain ,  but  is  still  the  object  of  the  action  expressed 
by  the  verb. 

When  is  a  verb  Intransitive  ? 

It  is  Intransitive  when  it  has  no  power  to  affect  an  ob- 
ject ;  ag,  The  bird  flies. 

Do  Intransitive  verbs  have  voice  ? 

They  do  not ;  though  a  few  of  them  admit  of  the  form 
CI  the  Passive  voice ;  as,  He  is  gone. 


38  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

LESSON  XII. 

OF   VERBS   CONTINUED. 
When  is  a  verb  Regular  ? 

When  it  forms  its  Past  tense  and  Perfect  participle  by 
annexing  d  or  ed  to  the  root  or  simplest  form  of  the  verb, 
it  is  Regular  ;  as,  Love,  loved,  loved.  Walk,  walked,  tvalked. 

Rem.  1. — It  will  readily  be  seen,  that,  if  the  root  of  the 
verb  ends  in  e,  d  only  is  annexed ;  but,  if  it  ends  in  any 
other  letter,  ed  is  annexed. 

Rem.  2. — Such  verbs  may  be  said  to  be  Regular ;  be- 
cause their  Past  tense  and  Perfect  participle,  are  formed 
according  to  rule. 

Rem.  3. — Some  verbs  appear  to  be  Regular  when  they 
are  not ;  such,  for  instance,  as  those  whose  root  ends  in 
some  other  letter  besides  e,  yet  having  their  parts  formed 
by  annexing  d  only ;  as.  Hear,  heard,  heard. 

When  aro  verba  Irregular  ? 

They  are  Irregular  when  the  Past  tense  and  Perfect 
participle  are  formed  by  varying  the  root,  or  when  they 
are  monotonous,  admitting  of  no  variation  ;  as,  see,  saiv, 
seen.     Set,  set,  set. 

Rem. — In  the  first  example,  the  root  of  the  verb  see  is 
varied,  i.  e,  the  other  parts  assume  a  form  diflferent  from 
the  root ;  but,  in  the  last  example,  the  root  is  not  varied, 
the  parts  all  having  the  same  form. 

What  is  aa  Auxiliary  verb  ? 

Such  verbs  as  are  used  to  assist  other  verbs  in  forming 
the  modes  and  tenses,  are  called  Auxiliaries  ;  as.  May, 
can,  must,  might,  could,  should,  &ic. 

Whtki  is  a  Defective  verb  ? 

Such  a  verb  as  can  only  be  used  in  so77ie  of  the  modes 
and  tenses ;  as,  Ought,  can,  &c. 

Rem. — The  learner  should  bear  in  mind,  though  we  have 
mentioned  several  classes  of  verbs,   yet  all  verbs  whether 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  ^^9 

Regular  or  Irregular,  Auxib'arj  or  Defective,  are  either 
Transitive  or  Intransitive. 

What  belong  to  verbs  ? 

Mode  and  Tense,  Number  and  Person. 


LESSON  XEII. 

OF    MODES. 
What  is  the  Mods  of  a  verb  ? 

Mode  is  the  7nanner  of  representing  affirmation. 

How  many  Modes  are  there  ? 

Five,  viz  :  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  Potential,  Imperative, 
and  Infinitive. 

How  does  the  Indicative  mode  represent  nffinnation  ? 

Positively  and  without  limitation ;  as.  She  loves. 

How  does  the  Subjunctive  represent  affirmation? 

The  Subjunctive  mode  affirms  a  thing,  su]>jcct  to  some 
condition ;  as,  If  Eli^a  study,  she  will  improve. 

How  does  the  Potential  represent  affirmation  ? 

The  Potential  mode  affirms  possibility,  liberty,  power, 
will,  obligation,  or  necessity  ;  as,  It  maif  rain.  lie  may 
go.     He  can  go.  He  zvould  go.  Ho  should  go.   lio  vuist  go. 

For  what  is  tbe  Imperative  mode  used? 

It  is^  used  for  commanding,  exhorting,  entreating,  or 
permitting ;  as,  Obey  my  precepts.     Go  in  peace. 

How  does  the  Infinitive  represent  affirmation  ? 

It  does  not  limit  it  to  any  particular  subject;  as,  Mar- 
tba  went  to  meet  Jesus. 

From  what,  does  the  Mode  of  verbs  arise  ? 

From  the  various  ways  in   which  affirmation  is  mado 


40 


YORK  S  ILLUSTRATED  AND 


'Oncerning    the   subject,   as    illustrated  in  the    following 
Diagram : 


a    Siibjurtctiye 


■ 


5      Potential 


Indicative. 


Impercitiye, 


The  perpendicular  column  represents  the  subject  of  aflBir- 
mation. 

Figure  1  represents  what  is  affirmed  indicativclv ;  as 
••he  figure  is  in  juxta-position  with  the  subject,  it  shows 
that  whatever  is  indicatively  predicated,  belongs  absolutely 
TO  the  subject ;  as,  The  bird  flies.     Job  was  patient. 

Figure  2  illustrates  the  Subjunctive  Mode,  or  what  is 
predicated  with  some  limitation  ;  as  but  one  of  the  parallel  ^ 
lines  of  wliich  the  figure  is  composed,  is  in  juxta-position 
with  the  subject,  it  shows  that  what  is  affirmed  of  the  sub- 
ject, may  or  may  not  belong  to  it ;  as,  If  tesar  was  a 
tyrant,  he  deserved  death. 

Figure  3  illustrates  the  Potential  Mode,  or  -svhat  is 
affirmed  potentially ;  as  the  figure  is  not  in  juxta-position 
with  the  subject,  it  shows  that  whatever  is  affirmed  poten- 
tially, does  not  belong  absolutely  to  the  subject,  but  that 
only  the  probability,  power,  liberty,  necessity,  <ifec.,  of  ac- 
tion or  quality,  is  predicated  ;  as,  Tlie  bird  can  jly.  John 
ill  ay  he  good. 

Figure  4  illustrates  ilie  Imperative  Mode,  or  what  is 
affirmed  imperatively.  In  this  Mode,  the  subject  is  com- 
manded to  act,  or  to  possess  a  quality;  it  is  clear  that  at 
the  time  of  command,  the  action  or  ({uality  required,  does 
not  exist  in  the  subject ;  but,  ns  it  is  presumed  that  the 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAK,  41 

speaker  has  povv'er  to  enforce  obedience,  there  is  a  very  strong- 
probability,  that  Avhat  is  commanded  will  be  performed; 
the  figure,  therefore,  though  not  in  juxta-position  •\vith  the 
subject,  is  made  to  npproacli  very  near  it :  n?,  Oheij  my 
precepts. 

Figure  5  illustrates  the  Infinitive  Mode ;  #3  the  figure 
is  not  connected  witli  the  subject,  but  with  the  part  of  the 
Diagram  which  represents  the  predicate,  it  shows  that  the 
Infinitive  never  makes  a  direct  alfirmation  concerniui:  th(,- 
subject,  but  depends  upon  some  otlier  element  in  construc- 
tion; as,  He  loeiit  to  juin  the  iirmy. 

Questions. 

What  does  the  perpendicular  column  '.f  the  Diaf;r:nn  rtproj^ont  ?  What 
r)o  the  other  parts  represent?  The  Proijicatt,;.  Vy  hat'  doe.-*  tig.  lit  rejr.rc'-r.-nt  ' 
What  fig.  2d,  fig.  3d,  Ac.  ? 


LESSON  XIY. 

OF   TEXvSE. 


What  is  Tense  ? 

Tense  means  time. 

Hon  many  Tenses  have  verbs  ? 

Six,  viz :  Present,  Past,  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  Future, 
and  Future-Perfect. 

What  does  the  I'resent  tenso  denote  ? 

Present  time ;  as,  I  write,  I  am  writing  now. 

What  d'los  the  Past  ten&e  denote? 

Simply  ^ast  time  ;  as,  I  ivrote  yesterday. 

What  does  the  Perfect  denote  ? 

The  Perfect  tense  represents  an  event  which  is  ^;asf,  but 
the  period  of  time  in  which  it  occurred,  is  connected  with 
the  present ;  as,  I  have  ivritten  to-day. 

What  does  the  Pluperfect  represent? 

It  represents  time  which  is  not  simply  past,  but  pi'ior  to 


42 


YORK  S  ILLUSTKATIVE  AND 


some  other  time  -which  is  also  past;  as,  I  had  ivrittcn  the 
letter  before  the  mail  arrived. 

What  does  the  Future  tense  denote  ? 

^im^ly  future  time  ;  as,  I  shall  write  to-morrow. 

What  does  the  Future-Perrect  tense  represent  ? 

It  represents  an  event  that  will  be  past  at  or  before 
some  other  future  time  specified ;  as,  I  shall  have  written 
by  the  appointed  time. 

You  may  now  examine  the  following  Diagram  Avhich 
illustrates  the  six  Tenses  of  the  verb. 


Fasit; 


Future 


Eerie  ex. 


Fiiture  yi 


Time  isj^ura.iit)n 
^    measured;^ ^ 


•  ^withdui^ 


The  space  included  by  the  vertical  lines  (1),  represents 
}iiesent  time. 

Tl)e  space  on  the  left  of  the  vertical  lines,  represents 
past  time,  and  that  on  the  right  of  the  vertic;il  linos,  rep- 
resents future  time. 

Figure  2,  which  consists  of  but  one  line,  having  no  con- 
nection with  the  Present,  illustrates  the  Pasjt  tense  of  the 
verb. 

This  tense  is  properly  used  in  speaking  and  writing, 
when  both   the   event  and   the  period  of  time  in  which  it 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  43 

occurred,  are  past ;  as,  Philosophers  made  great  discove- 
ries last  century. 

"  Figure  3,  which  consists  of  two  parallel  lines,  illus- 
trates the  Perfect  Tense.  This  tense  embraces  a  period 
of  time  which  is  not  only  connected  with  the  present,  but 
frequently  extends  into  the  future,  as  shown  by  the  first 
line  in  the  figure.  This  period,  as  a  whole,  consists  of 
three  component  parts ; — the  Event  part  marked  E,  is 
past,  the  Speaking  part,  marked  S,  which  is  present,  is  the 
time  occupied  in  uttering  the  sentence,  and  the  Post  speak- 
ing part,  marked  P,  which  is  future,  denotes  that  portion  of 
the  period  of  time  subsequent  to  the  uttering  of  the  sen- 
tence. But  the  period  embraced  by  this  Tense  of  the  verb, 
sometimes  only  approaches  the  Present,  as  shown  by  the 
second  parallel  line ;  this  is  the  case  when  the  speaker 
refers  to  all  the  past  part  of  his  life ;  as,  ''  Ihave  never  seen 
trees  so  tall." 

This  tense  is  correctly  used  in  speaking  and  writing, 
when  the  period  of  time  in  which  the  event  occurred,  is 
connected  with  the  Present ;  as,  I  have  studied  hard  this 
week,. 

Fisrure  4,  which  consists  of  two  lines  connected,  illus- 
trates  the  Pluperfect  tense. 

When  two  past  events  are  connected  in  sense,  the  Plu- 
perfect is  correctly  employed  in  the  prior  past  of  the  two  ; 
as.  The  thief  had  escaped  before  the  goods  were  missed. 
That  these  two  are  connected  in  sense,  is  obvious ;  for, 
when  i\iQ  former  is  uttered,  the  mind  is  so  much  under  the 
influence  of  the  expectation  of  the  latter,  that  it  is  disap- 
pointed, if  it  is  withheld.  The  thief  had  escaped, — and 
what  else  ?  before  the  goods  were  missed. 

Figure  5,  which  consists  of  a  single  line,  illustrates  the 
Future  tense. 

This  shows  that  this  tense  of  the  Verh  denotes  future 
iime  simply,  having  no  connection  with  any  other  event  or 


44  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

time.     Thi8  tense  is  correctly  used  when  future  time  is 
simplj  indicated. 

Figure  G,  which  consists  of  two  lines  connected,  illus- 
trates the  Future-Perfect  tense. 

When  two  future  events  are  connected  in  construction, 
this  tense  is  correctly  used  in  the  prior  future  of  these 
two  ;  as,  John  will  have  completed  his  task  by  the  appointed 
time. 

This  tense  is  called  Future-Perfect,  because  the  action 
or  event  will  be  completed  at  or  before  the  post  future 
event  with  which  it  is  connected. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  does  the  space  inclnded  by  the  ▼ertical  lines,  represent?  What  time 
does  the  space  on  the  left  of  the  -vertical  lines,  represent?  What  does  that; 
on  the  right  represent?     What  doea  figure  2d  represent  ? 

When  is  the  Past  tense  correctly  nsed  ? 
What  is  meant  by  the  event? 

The  actual  occurrence  of  the  action,  as  expressed  by 
the  word  7nade  in  the  example. 

What  by  psriod  of  time  f 

By  period  of  time,  is  meant  that  portion  of  time  in  which 
the  event  occurs;  as,  "  Za«^  century''  in  the  example  re- 
ferred to. 

Rem. — The  Teacher  may  ask  similar  questions  on  the 
rest  of  the  Diagram. 


LESSON  XV. 

OF  NUMBER  AND  PERSON  OF  VERBS* 
Are  Nnmber  and  Person  dependent  or  independent  properties  of  the  verb  ? 

They  are  dependent. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  45 

Why? 

Because  the  verb  depends  upon  its  nominative  for  these 
properties. 

In  order,  then,  to  know  the  number  and  person  of  the  verb,  to  what  must 
you  look  ? 

To  its  nominative. 

In  what  tense,  do  the  variations  of  the  verb  principally  take  place? 

In  the  Present. 

What  are  these  terminations  called  ? 

They  arc  called  personal  or  verbal. 

What  terminations  does  a  nominative  of  the  second  person,  singular, 
folcmn  stylo,  require  the  verb  to  assume  ? 

T",  st,  or  est ;  as,  Thou  ar^,  thou  lovcs^,  thou  walkesf. 

Does  the  nominative  you  of  the  second  person,  singular,  familiar  style, 
reqnire  the  verb  to  assume  the  same  terminntions? 

It  does  not ;  for  the  verb  generally  assumes  the  root  or 
plural  form  ;  as,  John,  where  are  you  ? 

Does  the  verb  ever  assume  the  singular  form  in  such  instances  ? 

Yes  ;  some  good  writers  use  a  verb  of  the  singular  form, 
in  the  Past  tense  with  such  a  nominative;  as,  "Witness, 
where  was  you  standing  during  the  transaction." 

What  terminations  does  a  nominative  of  the  tliird  person,  singular,  famil- 
iar style,  require  the  verb  to  assume  ? 

*S^  or  «;8  ;  as,  He  walk«.     She  goes. 

What  terminations  does  the  same  nominative,  solemn  style,  require  ? 

Th  or  eth  ;  as,  *' The  Lord  lovef/i  the  gates  of  Zion." 
''  He  walkc^A  through  dry  places." 

What  does  a  2)lural  nominative  of  any  person  require  ? 

It  requires  the  verb  to  assume  the  root  or  2?^w?'«?  form ; 
as.  We  love;  you  love;  they  love. 

What  effect  does  a  nominative  of  the  first  person  singular  have? 

It  generally  requires  the  verb  to  assume  a  similar  form  : 
as,  I  love. 

Rem.  1. — When  an  Auxiliary  verb  is  employed,  it  is 
always  varied  instead  of  the  principal  verb;  as  Thou  canst 
do  It. 


46    ^>-  York's  illuswi^itive  and 


/  Kem.  2. — A  nominative  of  the^econd  person,  singular, 

solemn  style,  requires  a  verb  in  ike  past  tense  to  vary  ; 
y*     as,  Thou  walkedst,  * 

Rem,  3.— The  solemn  style  is  the  style  used  in  the  Bible, 
and  the  familiar  style  is  that  used  in  common  conversation. 


LESSON  XVI. 

OF   CONJ\^GATION. 
V/hat  is  meant  by  the  Conjugation  of  a  verb? 

It  is,  literally  speaking,  yoking  the  verb  with  its  nomi- 
native throughout  all  its  Modes,  Tenses,  and  Voices. 

CONJUGATION   OF   THE  VERB   TO  BE. 

Root.     Be, 

Principal  Parts. 

Present,  vVm  or  be ;  Past,  AVas ;  Perf.  Participle,  Been. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 

PliESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1st  Person,  I  am.  1st  Person,  We  are. 

2d  Person,     jThouart,  or  2d  Person,     i^eare.or 

'     I  You  are.  '     ( You  arc. 

3d  Person,  He,  she,_orit  is.  3d  Person,  They  are. 

Past  Tense. 

Ist  Person,  I  was.  1st  Person,  We  were. 

2(j        t(        j  Thou  wast,  or  <,^        ^         { Ye  were,  or 

( You  were.  '^  ( You  were. 

3d         "       He  was.  3d         "      They  were. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  47 

Perfect  Tense.  #/ 

1  I  have  been.  1  -Wc  have  been 

2  \  Thou  hast  been,  or        o  J  Ye  have  been,  or 

I  You  have  been.  ^  \  You  have  been.         ' 

3  He  has  or  hath  been.        3  They  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

i  I  had  been,  1  We  had  been, 

2  I  Thou  hadst  been,  or       ^  (Ye  had  been,  or 
/You  had  been.  ^  "j  You  had  been. 

3  lie  had  been.  3.  They  had  been. 

Future  Tense. 

1  I  shall  or  will  he,  l   We  shall  or  will  l.>e, 

2  j  Thou  Shalt  or  wilt  be,  or         „     j  Ye  shall  or  will  be,  or 
^     I  You  shall  or  will  bo.  "     ]  You  shall  or  will  be, 

o  He  shall  or  will  be.  3  They  shall  or  will  be. 

Futuke-Pekfect  Tensf.  t 

-  ^  shall  or  will  have  been,  1  We  shall  or  will  have  been, 

Clhoushalt  or  wilt  have  been,     ^     j  Ye  shall  or  will  have  been,  or 

-  -^  or  You   shall   or   will  have     -"    ]  You  shall  or  will  have  been. 
( been 

3  He  shall  or  will  have  been.  3  They  shall  or  will  have  been. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tensf. 
IiuUeatlve  or  Common  Form.'^^ 

SiN<a;i.AK.  Plukal. 

1  If  1  am.  J   If  wc  arc. 

2  \^^  ^^^0^1  art,  or  ^^     j  If  ye  are,  or 
/I^  you  arc.  -    "/If  you  are. 

0  It  He  is.  3  If  they  are. 

Conjunctive  Form  or  Elliptical  Future. 

i   ^f  ^  be.  I  If  we  be. 
o     Uf  thou  be,  or  ^     Uf  ye  be,  or 

( If  you  be.  "    )  If  you  be. 

3  If  he  be.  3  If  they  be. 


48  York's  illustrative  and 

Past  Tense. 

Common  Form.  \ 

1  If  I  was.  1  If  we  were. 

4^    ^If  thou  wast,  or  o  ^   ^f  je  were,  or 

)lf  you  were.  "  )    If  you  were. 

3  If  he  wa8.  8  If  they  were. 

Hypothetical  Form. 

1  Were  I,  or  if  I  were.  1  Were  Ave,  or  if  we  wei'c. 

2  ^Wert  thou,  or  if  thou  wert,     ^     pVere  yo,  or  if  ye  were,  or 
/or  Were  you,  or  if  you  were.     "^     ]  Were  you,   or  if  you  wore. 

3  Were  he,  or  if  he  were.  3  Were  they,  or  if  they  were. 

Perfect  Tense. 

1   If  I  have  been.  1  If  we  have  been. 

c)     5  If  thou  hast  been,  or  2     ^  ^^  3^  h^^Q  been,  or 

/  If  you  have  been.  )  If  you  have  been. 

•3  If  he  hath  or  has  been.  ,,    3  If  they  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1  Ifl  had  been.  1  If  we  had  been. 

2  ^  If  thou  hadst  been,  or  9     5^^  J^  ^^^  been,  or 
)  If  you  had  been.  *"    }  If  you  had  been. 

3  If  he  h?.d  been.  3  If  they  had  been. 

Future  Tense. 

1  If  I  shall  or  will  be.  1  If  wc  shall  or  will  be. 

0  ^If  thou  sh;dt  or  wilt  be,  or     ^     ^If  ye  shall  or  will  be,  or 
\  If  you  shall  or  will  bt.  "     \  If  you  shall  or  will  be. 

3  If  he  shall  or  will  be.  3  If  they  shall  or  will  be. 

Future-Perfect  Tense. 

1  If  I  shall  or  will  have  been.         1  If  we  shall  or  will  have  beer. 

Clf  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  Clf  ye  shall  or  will  have  been, 

2  \     been,  or  2    <     or 

( If  you  shall  or  will  have  been.         ( If  you  shall  or  will  have  been 

3  If  he  shall  or  will  have  been.     3  If  they  shall  or  will  have  bee'i. 


•     .  CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  4i) 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

Indefinite  Tense.— [Present.] 

Singular.  Plural. 

1  T  may,  can,  or  must  be.  1  We  ma3\  can,  or  must  be. 

(Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  cy     j  Ye  may,  can  or  must  be,  or 

*2    <     be,  or  ~'     \  You  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

(You  may,  can,  or  must  be.  3  They  may,  can,  or  must  be, 
3  lie  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

Indefinite  Tense. — [Past.] 

i   I  might,  coulii,  would,  or  should  1   We  might,   could,   would,  or 

be.  should  be. 

(  Thoumightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  f  Ye  might,  could,  would,  or 

^1      or  shouldst  be,  or  c)    \      should  be,  or 

J  You  might,   could,   would,  or  "^       You  might,  could,  would,  or 

[^     should  be.  1      should  be. 

o  He    might,    could,     would,    or  3  They  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  be.  should  be. 


Perfect  Tense. 


I  I  may,  can,  or  must  have  been.     1   We  may,   can,  or  must  liaw 
'^      ''^  been. 


{ Thou   mayst,  canst,   or  must 
cy    J      have  been,  or  <^ 


'  Ye  may,  can,  or  must  have 
been,  or 


You  may,  can,  or  must,  have  "^    1  You  may,  can,  or  must  have 
i      been,  I      been. 

.'}  He  ma}'-,  can,  or  must  have  been.  3  They  may,  can,  or  must  have 

been. 

J      Pluperfect  Tense.* — [Past  Tense.] 

!   I  might,^ould,  would,  or  should  1     We    might,  could,  would,  or 
have  been.    '^          /\  should  have  been. 

'  Thoumightst,  couldst,  wouldst        T  Ye  might,    could,    would,    'tr 

^    ♦      or  shouldst  have  been,  or  ,^  |      should  have  been,  or 

1  You  might,  could,   would,  or  "  )  You  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  have  been.  I      should  have  been. 

o  lie  might,  could,  would  or  should  3  They  might,   could,  would,  or 
have  been.  should  have  been. 


*  This  tense  expresses  nothing  nioic  than  simply  y>mt  time;  con- 
^<;M]uently  it  is  not  embraced  in  the  definition  given  of  the  Pluperfect 
'.cnse.  As  things  ought  to  be  calle<l  by  their  proper  names,  I  wouM 
f-uggef^t  the  proprietj'  of  calling  this  tense  Fa^t. 


50  York's  illustrative  and 

« 


IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

Present*  Tense. — [Futuuh.] 

Singular.  Plural. 

^ ,  p        j  Be,  or  be  thou,  or        ^y     \  Be,  or  be  ye  or  you,  or 
-d  Fers.  -j  j)^  ^^^^  ^^  ^    -^  Y)o  ye  or  you  be. 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense,  To  be.  Perfect  Tense,  To  have  been. 

Pauiiciplbs. 

Imperfect,  Being.  Perfect,  Been. 

Pluperfect,  Having  been. 


LESSON  XVII. 


The  Conjugation  of  the  Regular,  Transitive  Verb, 
To  Love — in  the  Active  Voice. 

Root,  Lox>e. 
Principal  Parts,  Love,  loved,  loved. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 
Present  Tense. 

Singular. 

Ist  Peraon.     I  love. 

2d        "  Thou  lovest,  or  you  love. 

3d        "  He  loveth  or  loves. 


*  This  tense  is  generally  called  Present,  though,  strictly  speaixing, 
it  is  Future;  since,  if  the  event  were  actually  occurring  at  the  tune 
of  command,  it  would  supersede  the  necessity  of  it. 


constructive  grammar,  51 

Past  Tense. 


1st  Person 
2d         *' 
3d 

I  loved. 

Thou  lovedst  or  you  loved. 

He  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 

1st 
2d 
3d 

I  have  loved. 

Thou  hast  loved,  or  you  have  loved, 

He  hath  or  has  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1st 
2d 
3d 

a 
a 

I  had  loved. 

Thou  hadst  loved,  or  you  had  loved 

He  had  loved. 

Future  Tense. 

1st 
2d 

3d 

u 
a 

a 

I  shall  or  will  love. 

Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love,  or  you  shall 

love. 
He  shall  or  will  love. 

Future-Perfect. 

Ist        "  I  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

2d         "  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved,  or  you 

shall  or  will  have  loved. 
3d         "  He  shall  or  will  have  loved. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 
Present  Tense. 

Comm<m  or  Indicative  Form. 

Singular. 

1st        "         If  I  love. 

2d         "  If  thou  lovest,  or  you  love. 

3d  •       "         If  he  loveth  or  loves. 


02 


york  s  illustrative  and 
Past  Tense. 

1st  Ferson      If  I  loved. 

2d  **         !  If  thou  lovedst  or  you  loved. 

3d  *'  If  lie  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 

1st         "  If  I  have  loved. 

2dJ         "        [If  thou  hast  loved,  or  you  have  loved. 

3dj         "  If  he  hath  or  has  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

If  I  had  loved. 

If  thou  hadst  loved,  or  you  had  loved. 

If  he  had  loved. 

Future  Tense. 

If  I  shall  or  will  love. 

If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  love,  or  if  you  will  love. 

If  he  shall  or  will  love. 

Future-Perfect  Tense.  ] 

If  I  shall  or  will  have  loved. 
If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved,  or  you  shall 
or  will  have  loved. 
3d  "  If  he  shall  or  will  have  loved. 


POTENTIAL  MODE. 

Indefinite  Tense.. — [Present.] 

Singular. 

1       I  may,  can,  or  must  love. 

cy   j  Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  love,  or 

(  You  may,  can,  or  must  love. 
3       Tie  may,  can,  or  must  love. 


1st 

a 

2d 

:( 

3d 

i: 

1st 

a 

2d 

u 

3d 

u 

1st 

u 

2d 

a 

constructive  grammar.  ^      ^\ 

Indefinite  Tense, — [Past.]    • 

1  I  might,  couid,  would  or  should  love. 

2  f  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouMst,  or  shou'dat  love,  or 
\  You  might,  could,  would,  or  should  love. 

3  He  might,  could,  would,  or  should  love. 

Perfect  Tense. 

1       1  may,  can,  or  must  have  loved. 

a    (  Thou  mayst,  canst,  ar  must  have  loved,  or 

\  Yo-u  may,  can,  or  must  have  loved. 
S       He  may,  can,  or  must  have  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  loved. 

2  f  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouKLst,  or  shouldst  have  loved. 
\  You  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  lo/ed. 

3  He  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  loved. 

IMPERITIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. — [Future.]] 

2    r  Love  or  love  thou  or  you,  or 
^  \  Do  thou  or  you  love. 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 
Present  Tense,  To  love.         Perfect  Tense,  To  have  loved. 

Participles. 

Imperfect,    Loving.  Perfect,  Loved. 

Pluperfect,     Having  loved. 

Rem.  1. — Since  the  verb  undergoes  no  variation  to  agret 
with  a  nominative  in  the  plural,  the  plural  number  haK 
been  omitted  in  the  above  conjugation. 

Rem.  2. — The  Passive  voice  is  formed  throughout  »)l 


S4  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

iho  Modes  and  Tenses,  by  prefixing  the  variations  of  the 
verb  To  Be  to  the  Perfect  Parfieiple  of  a  Transitive  verb ; 
&s,  1  love,  Active ;  I  am  loved.  Passive  Voice. 


LESSON  XVIII. 

Formation  of  the  Tenses. 

Tlic  Root  of  the  verb,  as  found  in  the  Infinitive  Present, 
M  its  simplest  form, 

Hov?  ia  the  Past  Tease  of  Regular  verbs  in  the  Indicative  and  Subjunctive 
Modes,  form od ." 

By  annexing  d  or  eti  to  the  root ;  as,  Love,  loved. 

How  is  the  Past  of  Irregular  verbs  formed  ? 

By  varying  the  form  of  the  root ;  as,  See,  aatr. 

How  is  the  Perfect  Tense  formed  ? 

By  prefixing  hat/e  or  its  variations  to  the  Perfect  Parti- 
mplc  ;  as,  Have  loved,  hadst  loved,  hath  or  has  loved. 

How  ie  the  Pluperfect  Tense  formed  / 

By  prefixing  had  to  the  Perfect  Parti d pic ;  us,  Haii 
love  . 

How  is  the  Future  farmed? 

By  prefixing  shall  oi-  /'/A'  u'  th.  root  of  tlie  verb;  as. 
Shall  or  will  love.     SlVtill  or  will  see. 

How  is  tbt;  Future- Perfect  lormed?  .nfiM   o'i 

By  prefixing  ^hall  or  v/ill  hmr  to  the  Perfect  l*artici~ 
pic ;  as,  Shall  or  will  have  loved.  Shall  or  will  havt- 
j»een.  , 

Uuw  is  tho  so  called  Present  Potential  [indefinite},  forinod  ." 

By  prefixing  ma^j  van,  or  ^/iuat  to  the  root  of  the  verb  : 
as,  in;iy,  caii,  or  must  love. 

How  is  the  Potential  Past  [Indefinite],  as  it  is  called,  formed  ? 

By  prefixing  mighty  could,  loould,  or  should  to  the  root ; 
H<*,  Mightj  could,  would,  or  should  love. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR. 


55 


Rem. — Both  of  these  tenses  should  be  called  Indefinite. 

How  is  the  Potential  Perfect  formed  / 

By  prefixing  may,  can,  or  must  have  to  the  Perfect 
Participle ;  as,  May,  can,  or  must  have  loved. 

How  is  the  Potential  Pluperfect  [Past]  formed  t 

Bj  prefixing  might,  could^  would,  or  should  have  to  the 
Perfect  Participle  ;  as  Might,  could,  would,  or  should  have 
loved. 

How  is  the  Present  InfiQitive  formed  f 

By  prefixing  to  to  the  Root ;  as.  To  love. 

How  is  the  Perfect  Ininitive  formed  f 

By  prefixing  to  have  to  the  Perfect  Participle ;  as  To 
have  loved. 


LESSON  XIX. 

LIST  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


Present. 


Past. 


Perfect  Participle. 


Abide 

abode 

abode 

Am  or  Be 

was 

been 

Awake 

awoke,  R,* 

awaked 

Bear,  (to  bring  forth,) 

bore 

born 

Bear,  (to  carry,) 

bore 

borne 

Beat 

beat 

beaten,  beat 

Begin 

began 

begun 

Bend 

bent,  R, 

bent 

Bereave 

bereft,  R, 

bereff.  li. 

Beseech 

besought 

besought 

Bid 

bid,  bade, 

bidden,  bid 

Bind 

bound 

bound 

Bite 

bit 

bitten,  bit 

Bleed 

bled 

bled 

Blow 

blew 

blew 

*  Those  verbs  whose 

Past  tense  and  Perfect  Parti.iple  are  followed 

by  li,  have  also  a  regul 

lar  form;  as.  Awake 

or 

awaked. 

.56 


YOEK  .S   ILLUSTRATIVE  AHD 


Pkesent. 

Break 

Breed 

Brine 

Build 

Burn 

Burst 

Buy 

Cast 

Catch 

Chide 

Choose 

Cleave,  (to  adhere,) 

Cleave,  (to  split,) 

Cling 

Clothe 

Come 

Cost 

Creep 

Crow 

Cut 

Dare 

Deal 

Dig 

Do 

Draw 

Dream 

Drink 

DriTe 

Dwell 

Eat 

Fall 

Feed 

Feel 

Fight 

Fmd 

Flee 

Fling 

Fly 

Forsake 

Freeze 

Freight 

Get 

Gild 

Gird 

Give 

Go 

Grave 

Grind 

Grow 


Past 

broken 

bred 

brought 

built,  R, 

burnt,  R, 

burst 

bought 

cast 

caught,  R, 

chid 

chose 

cleaved 

clove,  cleft, 

clung 

clad,  R, 

came 

cost 

crept 

crew,  R, 

cut 

durst 

dealt,  R, 

dug,  R, 

did 

drew 

dreamt,  R, 

drank 

drove 

dwelt 

ate,  eat, 

fell 

fed 

felt 

fought 

found 

fled 

flung 

flew 

forsook 

froze 

freighted 

got 

gilt,  R, 

girt,  R, 

gave 

went 

graved 

ground 

grew    , 


Pbrfect  Particii'i.k. 

broken 

bred 

brought 

built 

burnt,  R, 

burst 

bought 

cast 

caught,  R, 

chidden,  chid, 

chosen 

cleaved 

cloven 

clung 

clad,  Rf 

come 

cost 

crept 

crowed 

cut 

dared 

dealt,  R, 

dug,  R, 

done 

drawn 

dreamt,  R, 

drunk,  drank, 

driven 

dwelt 

eaten 

fallen 

led 

felt 

fought 

found 

fled 

flung 

flown 

forsaken 

frozen 

fraught,  R, 

got,  gotten 

gilt,  R, 

girt,  R, 

given 

gone 

graven,  R, 

ground 

grown 


Present. 

Hang 

Have 

Hear 

Hea^«e 

Hew 

Hide 

Hit 

Hold 

Hurt 

Keep 

Kneel 

Knit 

Know 

Lade 

Lay  • 

Lead 

Loave 

Lend 

Let 

Lie,  (to  recline,) 

Light 

Load 

Lose 

Make 

Mean 

Met^t 

Mow 

Pay 

Pen,  (to  enclose,) 

Put 

Qdit 

Read 

Rend 

Rid 

Ride 

Ring 

Rise 

Rive 

Run 

Saw 

Say 

See 

Seek 

Seethe 

Sell 

Send 

Set 

Sit 

Shake 

Shape 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR. 

Past. 

Pkrfet  Partici 

hung 

hung 

had 

had 

heard 

heard 

hove,  R, 

hoven,  R, 

hewed 

hewn 

hid 

hidden,  hid, 

hit 

hit 

held 

held 

hurt 

hurt 

kept 

kept 

knelt,  R, 

knelt,  R, 

knit,  R, 

knit,  R, 

knew 

known 

laded 

laden 

laid 

kid 

led 

led 

left 

left 

lent 

lent 

let 

let 

lay 

lain 

lit,  R, 

lit,  R, 

loaded 

laden,  R, 

lost 

lost 

made 

made 

meant 

meant 

met 

met 

mowed 

mown 

paid 

paid 

pent,  R, 

pent,  R, 

put 

put 

quit,  R, 

quit,  R, 

read 

read 

rent 

rent 

rid 

rid 

rode 

ridden 

rang,  rung, 

rung 

rose 

risen 

rived 

riven 

ran 

run 

sawed 

sawn,  R, 

said 

said 

saw 

seen 

sought 

soug  't 

sod   R, 

sodden 

sold 

sold 

sent 

sent 

set 

set 

sat 

sat 

shook 

shaken 

shaped 

shapen,  R, 

67 


(>8 


TORK  S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 


Present. 


Past. 


Perfect  PARTrciPLE^ 


Shave 

shaded 

shaven 

Shear 

she  red 

shorn 

Shed 

shed 

shed 

Shine 

Rhone 

shone 

Shoe 

shod 

shod 

Shoot 

shot 

shot 

Show 

showed 

shown 

Shred 

shred 

shred 

Shrink 

shrank, 

shrunk, 

shrunk 

Shut 

shut 

shut 

Sing 

sang,  stir  g, 

sung 

Sink 

sank,  auiik. 

sunk 

Slay 

slow, 

slain 

Sleep 

slept 

slept 

Slide 

slid 

/slidden,  slid 

Sling 

slung 

slung 

.Slink 

slunk 

slunk 

Slit 

slit 

slit,  R, 

Smite 

Rmote 

smitten 

Sow,  (to  scaSter,) 

sowed 

sown,  R, 

Speak 

spoke 

spokeh 

Speed 

sped 

sped 

Spell 

spelt,  R, 

spelt,  R, 

Spenl 

spent 

spent 

Spill 

spilt,  R, 

spilt,  R, 

Spin 

spun 

spun 

Spit 

spit 

spit 

Spread 

spread, 

spread 

Spring 

sprang 

sprung, 

sprung 

Stand 

stood 

stood 

Steal 

stole 

stolen 

Stick 

stuck 

stuck 

String 

strnnp^ 

strung 

Stride 

strode,  si 

trrd, 

striudcn 

Strike 

struck 

struei:,  stricken, 

Strive 

stro"ye 

striven 

Strow,  or  strew, 

strowed  ( 

or  strewed 

strown,  or  s  rewn 

Swear 

swore 

sworn 

Sweat 

sweat 

sweat 

Sweep 

swept 

swept 

Swell 

swelled 

swollen,  R, 

Swim 

swam,  swum. 

swum 

S^ing 

swung 

swung 

Take 

took 

taken 

Teach 

taught 

taught 

Tell 

told 

told 

Think 

thought 

thought 

Tiirive 

thr.ive 

thriven 

Thrust 

thrust 

thrusc 

Ttirow 

threw 

thrown 

CONSTRUCTIVE   GKAMMAR, 


5f» 


Present* 

Tread 

Wax 

Wear 

Weave 

Weep 

Wet 

Whet 

Win 

Wind 

Work 

Wring 

Write 


Past, 

trod 

waxed 

wore 

wove 

wept 

Wet,  R, 

whet,  R, 

won 

wound 

wrought,  R, 

wrung 

wrote 


Perfect  Participle. 

trodden,  trod, 
waxen,  R, 
worn 
woven 
wept 
wet,  R, 
whet,  R, 
won 
wound 
wrought,  R^ 
wrung 
written. 


MODEL. 

"Jesus  w«nt  anto  the  Mottnt  of  0  ives." 

Went  is  an  Irregubir  Intransitive  verb,  of  tlic  Indicu- 
tive  Mode,  Past  tense,  and  of  the  third  person,  s'n^ular 
aumbcr^  agreeing  with  its  nominative  tTesuHj  according  td 
rule  6. 

Why  is  tc€ut  a  terb  ? 

Because  it  asserts  or  affirms. 

Why  Irregular? 

Because  it  forms  its  Past  ^ense  and  Perfect  Par*!  iple, 
by  varying  the  form  of  the  root. 

Why  Ititr..Dsitive? 

Bccauvse  it  has  no  power  to  affect  ah  object. 

Why  in  the  Indicative  Mode.' 

Because  it  affirms  positively  and  without  limitation. 

Why  ia   the   Past  Tonfe  .' 

Because  the  period  of  time  in  which  the  event  oceUiTed, 
is  wholly  past. 

Why  of   tlio  third  f.ersT,  singulnr.' 

Because  its  nominailvo  ^hsus  is  of  tlie  third  p(MSOb, 
singular. 


<iO  yoke's  illustrative  and 


EXERCISES. 


The  sun  shines  upon  the  floor.  Joseph  went  with  hts 
brother.  Thomas  has  returned.  James  had  lost  his  book- 
before  he  left  school.  Those  ladies  will  return  soon.  H« 
will  have  completed  his  task  by  the  time  appointed.  If 
fienrj  study,  he  will  improve.  If  thou  hadst  been  here, 
he  would  not  have  gone.  He  may  go,  if  he  will  return 
to-morrow.  I  may  have  said  it.  The  work  might  hav« 
1)een  done  better.  He  would  n-ot  go.  He  went  into  tK« 
field,  to  seek  treasure.  He  ought  to  have  ffone  sooner. — 
Obey  my  precepts,  if  you  wish  to  learn.  Take  heed  to 
your  ways.  Walk  not  in  the  way  of  bad  men.  Keep  your 
heart  with  all  diligence.  Tarry  not  at  the  wine.  He  has 
uo  time  to  lose.  Have  they  returned  ?  Can  Mary  attend 
the  wedding  ?     It  is  I ;  be  not  afraid. 


LESSON  XX. 

OF    PARTICIPLE. 


What  is  a  Participle  f 

A  participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  and  partakes 
*f  the  nature  of  a  verb,  and  also,  of  an  adjective,  but  de- 
pends upon  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  construction. 

How  Jo  I'lirticiples  partake  of  the  mature  of  tho  verb? 

Tlu  ,  ]ii<e  verbs,  express  action  ;  as,  I  see  a  man  walk- 
ing. 

In  V     ,;  .'■■  ."i^ecr,  do  tbey  partake  of  the  nature  of  adjectives  ? 

In  ■'jnlting  the  noun  or  pronoun  on  which  they  depend. 
Kor  -fjince,  in  the  sentence,  "I  see  a  man  walking," 
waller  :ff  noi  only  expresses  tlie  action  of  man,  but,  also, 
liuiit^3  inan  like  :in  adjective. 

Hovi-  TJiany  Participles  have  verbs? 

Three,  viz :  Imperfect,  Perfect,  and  Pluperfect, 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR.  61 

How  ia  the  Imperfect  Participle  formed? 

By  annexing  ing  to  the  Root  of  the  verb ;  as,  Love, 
loving. 

Hem. —  when  the  verb  ends  in  e,  on  receiving  the  suffix 
ing,  the  e  is  dropped.  (See  Illustrative  and  Constructive 
grammar,  Rules  for  Spelling.) 

Hhy  is  tbo  Participle  ending  in  ivg,  called  Imperfect? 

'Because  the  action  which  it  expresses,  is  unfinished. 

How  is  the  Perfect  Participle  formed  ? 

When  derived  from  a  regular  verb,  it  is  formed  by  an- 
u-exing  d  or  ed  to  the  Root;  as,  Love,  loved ;  but,  when 
derived  from  an  Irregular  verb,  it  is  formed  by  varying 
the  form  of  the  Root ;  as.  See,  ^een. 

Why  is  this  Participle  called  Perfect? 

Because  it  denotes  a,  finished  state  of  the  action  or  ver- 
bal denotement. 

How  18  the  Plupeifect  Participle  formed? 

By  prefixing  having  to  the  Perfect  Participle  ;  as,  seen, 
having  seen. 

Why  i-  it  called  Pluperfect. 

Because  it  denotes  more  than  the  Perfect. 

Rem. — The  Pluperfect  Participle  not  only  denotes  a 
finish'vi  st.ito  of  the  actiorj  o;-  verbal  denotrmen  ,  but, 
also,  :t6  completed  before  the  time  indicated  by  the  princi- 
pal veil)  of  the  sentence,  wiiii  which  it  is  as80ciat<d  ;  as, 
■He  haviny  wrlUen  a  letter,  tn.-Ml'  d  it.  (For  a  full  display 
of  the  Particlp!  ',  see  lllustra!  c  and  Constructive  Gram- 
mar.) 

MODEL. 

The  old  fox  lunrd  the  hunrer's  horn  sounding. 

Soimdifuj  is  an  Imperfect  Participle,  derived  from  the 
verb  to  sound,  and  refers  to  horn,  a<;cordiiig  to  Rule  18. 

Why  i-   s'tHiiditig  h   Pirticiple? 

B;  ( :'Jise  it  is  derivetl  from  a  verb,  and  partakes  of  the 
naturo  of  a  verb  aiid  an  adjcccive. 


62  York's  lllustrative  ai^d 

Wby  is  it  Imperfect? 

Because  the  action  which  it  expresses,  is  uiA.Hnishcd,  still 
goin^  on. 

Why  is  it  said  to  refer  to  horn  ? 

Because  it  depends  upon  it  in  constiiiction. 
EXERCISES. 


I  see  an  eagle  flving.  The  hnntert,  hc.ii^  young 
dog  biirking.  James  has  coraplfited  the  task  give^-«  him. 
The  young  ladies,  having  written  the  letter.  dis)iatchcd  it. 
The  stranger  saw  the  desert  thistle  bending  there  its  lonely 
head.  The  General  having  completed  the  conquest,  re- 
turned in  triumph.  Jesus  seeing  the  multitude,  v.ent  up 
into  a  mountain.  The  house,  erected  on  yonder  rising 
ground,  drew  mc  from  the  road.     I  see  a  man  beating  \u^ 


horse. 


LESSON  XXL 


PRONOUNS    OR    SUBSTITti 

Whp,»  ji  H  (*r>ir  aifi  ? 

A  Pr')?ioiHi  is  p,  'vord  \yry\  instend  .,.  gene- 

rally to  avoid  it.i  rnpetj  i  .u  ;  as^  Hen.^  ^     .    - 1  r  ient, 

and  he  learns  very  last. 

Re'  . —  You  perceive  that //^,  In  this  sentence,  :  '  jidsfor 
the  noun  or  name  Jlcnry^  and,  also,  avoids  its  k  pc  lition, 
thereby  making  language  more  concise  and  elegant. 

How  may   Primouns  be  divided? 

Into  tv.a  classes,  viz:  Personal  and  Relative,  or  Con' 
nective. 

How  ar'.   Personal  jt  nituns  distinguished  from  the  Relaliv©  ? 

Pers'Mial  pronouns  have  a  form  to  ohow  their  v,\\n  per^ 
eon  ;  i.tclatives  Lave  not. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  GS 

How  many  Personal  pronouns  are  there  ? 

There  are  five,  viz :  /,  tliou,  or  you^  he  sJte^  ar]^  ?f,  and 
their  plurals,    We^  ye  or  you^  and  they* 

What  belong  to  Pronoun8? 

As  Pronouns  stand  for  nouns,  they  must  have  the  camc 
properties,  viz:  Gender,  Person,  Number,  and  Car-e. 

Which  of  the  Pronouns  are  varied  to  express  Gend  r? 

Those  of  the  third  person,  singular,  viz:  lie.  mascu- 
line ;  She^  feminine,  and  It^  neuter. 

Why  are  not  Pronounn  of  the  first  and  second  persona,  varie.i    o  cxpre.oH 
Gander? 

Because  the  speaker  and  person  addressed,  are  supposed 
to  be  present;  constq  lently  their  (leruler  known  ;  i'ut,  af» 
tlie  third  portion  may  be  absent  or  unknown  to  tii(:  person 
addressed,  it  is  varied  to  express  gender. 

II')W  many  Persons  hnvo  prontuns? 

Three;  first,  second,  and  third;  J  and  we  a  t  per- 

son, thoxi  or  you.  and  ye  or  you  are  sccon  I,  and  hc.^  S/w^  it, 
and  they^  third. 

Whi.t  does  the  person  (<f  Pro'PUTis  i'f»pres«>nt;  or  denote  ? 

The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker,  the  sec^'-d,  the 
person  or  thing  spoken  to  or  addrer>ed,  aiv'  ^he  -id,  the 
persons  or  things  spoken  of  or  about. 


LESSON. 

OF  I)i:CLi:NteION. 
Do  Pronouns  have  a  f>rin  fo  rimw  tl'cir  cate  ? 

Most  of  them  have. 

Wr  ii'  if  thi«  Vitriiiti    !.  n     ♦o<-       \'.i  show  case,  CAUrt)  7 

It  is  called  Declenaion. 

What  d>»-t<  DerlenMon   lunr   ? 

It  means  to  bend  from,  i   r.,  ilic  I'o.-^c-  .s.    .«..     .)l»jec 
tlvc  cases  jicne.-aliv  li.ivc  h/nn.i  ditTcreiit  !/.»!ii  tin-  ii.'iulua- 
tive,  as  illustrated  iu  tin;  i(»ii.)\Miig  Uiagr.iDi ; 


H4 


TORK's  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 


DECLENSION    OF  PRONOUNS. 


FIRST  PERSON. 


Possessive. 
MY  or  MINE- 


our- 


NOMlNATIVE. 

Singula?*. 
1 


Plural. 
—  "Nve  — 


Objective. 
—ME, 


-US. 


SECOND 


YOUR- 
your — 


SECOND 

I 

[thy  or  THINE— 

lyour 


PERSON,  Famili 

Singular. 
YOU 


Plural. 


AK  Style. 
YOU 


you 


PERSON,  Solemn 

Singular. 
'i'HOU 


Plural. 
— ye — 


Style. 


-you. 


THIRD 


HIS- 


PEU80N — Masc 

Singular. 
—  HE 


uline. 


Their- 

HEU- 

Their- 


Phiral. 

._Tli(.v— 


THIRD  PERSON — Femi 
Singular. 
SHE 


-THEE, 

-you. 

-HIM, 


THIRD 


ITS 


PIvral. 
-Tlu.j- 


Tliom. 

NINE. 

HER, 

Them. 


PERSON Neu'teh. 

Singular. 

:iT 


iTheir- 


Plural. 
-They- 


■IT, 


— Tlicm. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  6o 

By  examining;  the  Diagram,  it  will  be  perceived  that  tb« 
Nominative  is  written  in  the  middle  c  >lumn,  the  Posses- 
sive on  the  left,  and  the  Objective  on  th  ^  right.  The  Pos- 
sessive and  Objective  cases  are  written  it  the  ends  of  lines, 
forming  right  angles  with  the  middle  co  umn,  showing  that- 
the  most  of  them  have  a  form,  and  all  of  them  a  meaning 
different  from  the  Nominative. 

In  declining,  as  exhibited  in  the  Diagram,  the  pupils 
will  take  it  up  in  the  following  order :  Nominative  1 ;  Pa.s- 
sive  my  or  mine;  Objective  me,  &c. 

MODEL. 

"  Henry  is  a  good  student,  and  he  learns  very  fast/* 

He  is  a  Personal  Pronoun,  Mascul  ne  Gender,  third 
person,  singular,  agreeing  with  its  antecedent  Henry, 
according  to  rule  12,  (repeat) ;  and  in  the  nominative  cas/j 
to  the  verb  learns  according  to  Rule  1.     (Repeat  Rule.) 

Whj  is  he  a  Pronoua  ? 

Because  it  is  used  instead  of  a  noun. 

Why  a  Personal  prcBoun? 

Because  it  has  a  form  to  show  its  person. 

Why  of  th©  Masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular? 

Because  its  antecedent  Henry  is. 
Why  in  the  Nominative  case  ? 

Because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  in  its  own  member, 

EXERCISES. 

Mary  walked  with  her  sister.  I  saw  a  man  walkiivg 
with  his  brother.  My  friends  visit  me  very  often.  Charles 
has  lost  his  knife.  Thou  liast  seen  my  friend.  Blot  out 
all  mine  ini((uitics.  We  leave  your  forests  of  beasts.  You 
are  happy ;  because  you  are  good.  I  will  fear  no  evil  : 
for  tliou  art  with  nie. 


^6  York's  illustrated  and 


LESSON  XXIII. 

OF   RELATIVE    OR   CONXECTIVE    PRONOUNS. 
Wh-'t  are  Relative  Pronouns  1 

Thoj  relate  lo  some  word  or  phrase  going  before,  called 
the  aiitecedent;  as,  The'boy  who  studies,  will  improve. 

Do  not  many  of  the  Personal  pronouns,  also,  relate  to  antecedents  1 

They  do. 

Then,  in  wiiat  respect,  do  Relative  prod^ns  differ  from  Personal  ? 

They  have  no  form  to  show  their  person,  and  they  con- 
nect clauses  like  connective  adverbs ;  and  this  is  the  rea- 
son they  are  sometimes  called   Connective  pronouns. 

What  vvords  are  used  as  Relatives  f 

Who,  whiehy  and  that. 

To  what  is  toTio  applied  % 

Who  is  applied  to  persons  and  rational  beings ;  as,  The 
boy  who  studies,  will  improve. 

To  what  is  which  applied? 

Wliich  is  now  applied  to  brutes  and  things  ;  as,  The  bird 
which  sung  so  sweetly,  has  flown. 

To  what  is  that  applied  f 

That  is  applied  to  any  thing  whether  rational  or  irra- 
tional, animate  or  inanimate;  as,  They  that  sow  in  tears, 
shall  reap  in  -joy.     The  things  that  1  hate,  ye  do. 

WLic''  of  the  Relatives  are  declinable  f 

Who  and  what,  are  sometimes  called  its  compounds, 
whoever^  whosoever,  &c. ;  as,  Nominative  Who,  Possessive 
Whose,  Objective  Whom. 

Are  w\ich  and  that  declinable  / 

1.  "  are  not,  except  whose  is  sometimes  used  as  the 
posbtosive  case  of  which  instead  of  the  phrase  "  of  which  ;" 
as,  ''  ^xiiQ  fruit  of  that  forbidden  tree,  tvhose  mortal  taste 
brought  death,  &c,"  i.  e.,  the  mortal  taste  of  which  brought 
death  > 


OONSTRU-CTIVE   GRAMMAR.  67 


LESSON  XXIV. 


OF  WHOEVER,  WHICHEVER,  WHAT. 

What   :re  sucli  words  as  whoever,  lohichever,  and  what  generally  called  f 

They  are  generally  called  Compound  Relative  Pro- 
nouns. 

Is  this  an  appropriate  name  * 

We  think  not ;  since  wJioever  and  whosoever  refer,  like 
other  Ilclatives,  to  some  antecedent  expressed  or  under- 
stood, but  generally  understood,  since  their  antecedents 
are  very  indefinite ;  as,  *'  whosoever  will  be  a  friend  of  the 
world,  is  an  enemy  of  God,"  i.  e-,  lie  is  an  enemy  of  God, 
whosoever  will  bo  a  friend  of  the  world.  And,  as  to  ivhaty 
2vhatev  Tj  and  tvhiehever,  they  are  specifying  adjectives,  or 
substi-  lues,  belonging  to  some  noun  expressed  or  under- 
stood ;  as.  I  like  what  you  dislike,  i.  e.y  I  like  what  thing 
you  dislike.  Whatever  is,  is  right,  i.  e,  \_Whatever  thing 
(whicJi  is),  is  right.]  Eliza  may  take  whichever  pattern 
pleases  her  best,  i.  e.,  [Eliza  may  take  whichever  pattern] 
(which  pleases  her  best),  which  being  understood. 

What  ;\re  those  pronouns,  used  in  asking  questions,  called? 

The  '  are  generally  Called  Interrogative  pronouns ;  they 
are  Wi  >,  tvhat,  and  which, 

Re'^  — Of  these,  who  only  is  properly  an  Interrogative 
pronoun  ;  since  which  and  what  belong  to  some  noun,  ex- 
pressen  or"  understood  ;  as,  lohich  tvay  shall  I  fly  ?  What 
is  that 't-  i.  e.,  what  person  or  thing  is  that  ?  What  book 
iiave  yoa? 

Rje:/-  i — Since  Relative  pronouns  have  no  form  to  show 
their  ^<»ndcr,.  person,  and  number,  you  must  look  to  their 
antpcc  kats,  in  order  to  know  these  properties. 

Rett.  "2 — Tntorrogativcs  are  said  to  agree  in  case  with 
their  yiusequent ;  as.   Who  wrote  that?     John. 

MODEL  I. 

The     cy  who  studies  his  lessons,  will  improve. 


6%  York's  illustrative  and 

Who  is  a  Relative  pronoun,  of  the  masculine  f^ender, 
third  person,  singular,  agreeing  vith  its  antecedent  60^, 
according  to  Rule  12,  and  nominative  case  to  8tudi:3y  ac- 
cording to  Rule  1. 

Why  ia  who  a  Pronoun  ? 

Because  it  is  used  instead  of  a  noun. 

Why  tt  Relative? 

Because  it  not  only  relates  to  an  anccdcnt,  but  It  has  no 
form  to  show  its  Gender,  Person,  or  Number. 

EXERCISES. 

The  young  lady  who  instructs  me,  labors  faithfully. — 
This  is  the  tree  which  produces  no  fruit.  T  le^  that  sow 
in  tears,  shall  reap  in  joy.  The  boy  whom  I  ton-^h,  learns 
well.     The  hat  which  Henry  lost,  has  been  found. 

MODEL  2. 

I  heard  what  was  said. 

What  is  a  specifying  adjective,  and  belongs  t^  thiTig 
"noeton"  [understood];  or  thus,  lohat  is  b,  suhstit  te  for 
what  thing y  and  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  heard, 
according  to  Rule  19. 

Reji. —  Which,  in  this  and  all  similar  constructions,  ifi 
noeton  [understood].  The  sentence,  rendered  plenary,^ 
will  read  thus,  [1  heard  what  thing]  {which  was  said.) 

EXERCISES. 

Henry  took  what  he  wanted.  Mary  took  what  Eliza 
left.  I  heard  what  was  alleged  on  both  sides.  Whatever 
purifies  the  heart,  also  fortifies  it.  George  may  purstke 
whatever  science  suits  his  taste.  Whatever  is  true  in  sei » 
once,  is  useful  in  the  arts. 

MODEL  3. 
Who  ai-t  thou  ?     The  minkter. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  69 

Who  is  an  Interrogative  pronoun,  agreeing  in  gender, 
person,  and  number  with  its  subsequent  minister^  and  is  in 
the  nominative  case,  predicated  of  the  subject  thou^  accord- 
ing to  Rule  2. 

Rem. — If  the  subsequent  is  not  expressed,  or  the  an- 
swer to  the  question  not  given,  the  gender,  person,  and 
number  of  the  Interrogative  cannot  be  determined. 

EXERCISES. 

Who  hid  John's  hat  ?  With  whom  did  you  walk  ?  Who 
wrote  that  ?  Which  route  did  he  take  ?  What  book  have 
you  ?  A  Poem.  What  have  I  done .?  What  think  ye  of 
Christ? 


LESSON  XXV, 

OF  THE  ARTICLE. 


What  is  an  Arkicle  ' 

An  Article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  nouns,  to  limit  the  e%^ 
tent  of  their  signification ;  as,  Thou  art  the  man. 

How  many  Articlos  are  there  ? 

Two,  A  or  an  and  The, 

What  ifl  The  called  ? 

It  is  called  the  Definite  article,  and  belongs  to  nouns  of 
'both  numbers. 

What  is  A  or  An  called  f 

A  or  An  is  called  the  Indefinite  urtlcle,  and  belongs  to 
nouns  of  the  lingular  number. 

When  fihould  an  he  used  ? 

It  should  be  used  before  words  commencing  with  a  vowel 
^oiind,  and,  also,  before  words  commencing  with  A,  when  the 
accent  is  on  the  second  syllable ;  as,  An  acorn;  an  hour: 
tan  historic  account, 
6 


70  York's  illustrative  and 

Rem. — Though  h  is  used  in  the  -word  liour^  yet  it  has^ 
no  sound  ;  consequently  the  first  sound  is  a  vowel  sound. 

When  should  A  be  used  .' 

It  should  be  used  before  all  words  commencing  Tvith  a 
consonant  sound,  except  those  commencing  with  /*,  accented: 
on  the  second  syllable  ;  as,  A  man.     A  useful  book. 

Rem. — Though  the   word  useful  commences  with  the 
Towel  w,  yet  the  first  sound  heard,  is  that  of  the  conso-- 
nant  y. 

Since  the  Article  belongs  to  nouns,  might  it  aot  bd  called  a  Specifying 
Adjective  ? 

It  might  be  so  called ;  and  those  who  prefer  parsing  it 
ai  such,  are  sustained  by  good  authority. 

Do  Articles  belong  to  any  other  words  besides  nouns? 

In  some  peculiar   constructions,   the  definite  article  is 
said  to  belong  to  adverbs  and  adjectives  in  the  compara-. 
tive  and  superlative  degrees ;  as,   The  more  I  examine  it, 
the  better  \Yi\lq  it.     The  deeioer  the  well,  the  colder^  the 
water. 

Rem.— ^jT^e,  in  such  constructions,. is  not,  philosophi- 
cally speaking,  an  article,  but  an  adverb  or  secondary  adr- 
jective.     (3ce  Illustrative  and  Constructive  Grammar.) . 

MOOTL. 

Solomon  was  a  wise  man. 

A  is  the  liidefiJiite  Article,  and  belongs  to  the  noun^ 
man^  according  to  Bale  13. 

^liy  ifl  a  an  Article  ? 

Because  it  limits  a  noun.. 

Why  is  it  the  Indefinite  Article  ?^ 

Because  it  limits  the  noun  with  respect  to  number,  or 
points  it  out  indefinitely. 

Why  is  a  used  in  this  example,  instead  of  an  ? 

Because  it  is  placed  before  a  word  commenoiiig  with  &i 
ctnsonant  sound. 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR.  Tl 

EXERCISES. 

Washington  was  a  man  of  prudence.  The  boy  learns 
well.  The  girl  has  a  useful  book.  That  book  is  a  Poem. 
He  is  fond  of  an  English  author.  The  day  glides  sweetly. 
She  is  a  beautiful  lady. 


LESSON  XXVI, 

OF  ADJECTIVBS  OR  ATTRIBUTES. 
What  is  an  Adjective/ 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  to- 
express  its  quality,  or  limit  its  meaning ;  as,  A  good  man. 
That  book. 

Into  how  many  classes,  then,  may  Adjectives  be  divided  / 

They  may  be  divided  intatwo^  viz  :  Qualifying  and  Spec- 
ifying. 

What  are  Qualifying  Adjectives?' 

Qualifying  Adjectives  expijess  the  quality  of  the  nouna 
o<r  pronouns  to  which  they  a.re  joined ;  as.  Young.;  ladies. 
Tali  trees. 

Do  Qualifying  Adjectives  limit  the  meaning  of  noans  as  well  as  express 
ftheir  quality  ? 

They  do  ;  fof  yjomig  aad  tall^  in  the  above  examples, 
limit  ladu^  and  trees  to  a  less  number  than  simply  ladies. 
and  trees  /  since  all  ladies  are  not  youngs  nor  are  all  trees 
tall.     (See  Illustrative  and  Constructive  Grammar.) 

Are  Adjectives  varied? 

They  are  varied  only  to  express  the  degrees  of  compar- 
ison. 

How  manj  ]Qteg^rej8  of  Comparison  m9  tb-  re  ? 

Adjectives  generally  have  three  Degrees  of  Comparison^ 
Yiz :  Positive,  Comparative,  and  Superlative. 
What  does  the  Positive  degree  exprwi  ? 

It  expresses  an  indirect  comparison ;  as,  when  we  say 


72  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

"that  man  is  tall,"  we  can  only  know  this  by  comparing 
him  with  the  general  height  of  men,  and  finding  that  he 
exceeds  it.  ^ 

"What  does  tbe  Comparative  degree  express? 

It  expresses  a  direct  comparison  between  ttvo  objects  or 
classes  of  objects ;  as,  James  is  taller  than  Henry.  Eve 
-^^^  fairer  than  any  of  her  daughters. 

What  does  the  Superlative  express  1 

It  expresses  a  direct  comparison  of  several  objects ;  asj 
That  is  the  tallest  tree  in  the  forest. 


LESSON  XXVII. 

PORMATION  OP  THE  DEGREES. 

How  are  the  Comparative  and  Superlative  degrees  of  Monosyllabic  ad., 
jwtives  generally  formed  ? 

They  are  formed  by  annexing  r  or  er  to  the  Positive,  to 
form  the  Comparative,  and  st  or  est  to  the  Positive,  to 
form  the  Superlative ;  as,  Positive,  wise :  Com.  wiser ; 
Sup.  wisest, 

I>»  any  other  adjectires  admit  «f  these  terminations  ? 

Yes,  such  dissyllahio  adjectives  as  end  in  y  or  ?<?,  and, 
also,  such  as  have  the  accent  on  the  second  syllable,  admit 
similar  terminations;  as,  Holy,  holier,  hoYiest,  Abl6, 
abler,  ablest.     Polite,  polii^r,  polite^. 

How  are  other  adjectives  generally  compared  ? 

By  prefixing  more  and  most^  less  and  least  to  the  Posi- 
tive ;  as,  Beautiful,  more  beautiful,  most  beautiful.  Beau- 
tiful, lest  beautiful,  and  least  beautiful. 

Do  adjectives  ever  admit  of  more  than  three  degrees  of  comparison? 

Such  adjectives  as  are  expressive  of  color  and  taste, 
generally  admit  of  four  degrees ;  viz :  Imperfect^  Positive, 
Comparative^  and  Superlative  \  as.  Imperfect,  Brozvnish, 
brown,  browner,  brownest. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  73 

Rem. — The   Imperfect  degree   expresses  a  degree   of 
quality  inferior  to  the  Positive. 

The  Degrees  of  Comparison  are  illustrated  by  the  fol- 
lowing Diagram. 


Figure  1  illustrates  the  increase  of  the  Positive,  or  Com- 
parison ascending ;  as,  Positive,  Wise ;  Comparative,  wiser ; 
Superlative,  wisest. 

Figure  2  illustrates  diminution  of  the  Positive,  or  Com- 
parison descending  ;  as,  P.  Wise ;  C.  less  wise ;  S.  least 
wise^ 

Figure  3  illustrates  the  comparison  of  such  adjectives 
m  have  four  degrees  ;  as  Imperfect,  Greenish  ;  P.  green ; 
C.  greener ;  S.  greenest. 

It  will  be  perceived  by  inspecting  the  Diagram,  that  the 
Superlative  expresses  the  highest  or  lowest  degree  of 
quality  ;  the  lines  S****  S,  in  Figures  1  and  2,  make 
these  extremes. 

Rem.  1 — Some  adjectives  are  Secondare/  or  Helping^ 
and  qualify  other  adjectives  ;  as.  Pale  red  lining.  A  very 
old  man. 

Rem.  2 — Some  adjectives  are  irregular  in  forming  the 
degrees  of  comparison  ;  as,  Good,  better^  best. 

MODEL. 

A  prudent  man  foresee th  the  evil. 

Prudent  is  a  Qualifying  Adjective,  in  the  Positire  de- 


74  tork's  illustrative  aiicd 

gree,  and  belongs  to  man,  according  to  Rule  15.  Com- 
pared, Positive  prudent,  Com.  mote  prudent,  Sup.  most 
prudent 

Why  is  prucUnt  an  Adjective  ? 

Because  it  is  a-dded  to  a  noisti, 

Vihj  Qualifying? 

Because  it  expresses  the  quaUty  of  the  noun  man  to 
"which  it  is  attached. 

"Wby  in  the  Positive  degree? 

Because  it  expresstjs  an  indirect  comparison. 
EXERCISES^ 

[You  Doay  now  pfterse  and  compare  all  the  adjectives  hx  the  following  sen*- 
teBCf,  88 exhibited  in  the  above  Model.] 

Washington  Tivas  a  prudent  man.  A  good  man  is  a  great 
man.  Solomon  "was  the  wiset  man.  0\d  age  should  be 
respected.  Martha  is  more  beautiful  than  her  sister.  Pe- 
ter is  taller  thati  James.  He  bought  a  piece  of  dark  brown 
^loth.  A  very  industrious  man  acquires  property,  A 
very  good  pon  writes  well. 

•  c 


LESSON  XXVIII. 

«P1^IFYING   OR   LIMITING  ADJECTIVES. 
How  do  Specifying  Adjectives  point  out  nouns  ? 

They  poitit  out  notm-s  by  some  distinct  specification,  but 
do  not  express  quality-;  as,  Etery  man.     Some  womeo- 

Do  Specifying  Adjectives  ever  belong  to  nouns  ? 

They  do-,  though  not  frequently-;  as,  "A  good  undor- 
standing  have  alH  they  that  fear  the  Lord." 

Are  Specifying  Adjectives  ever  used  as  Substi-tiates  •? 

They  are  frequently  so  used ;  as,  Ho  oame  unto  his  own, 
but  his  own  received  him  not,  L  e.  he  came  unto  his  oiun 
nation,  &c. 


CONStRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  76 

Into  how  many  classes  may  Specifying  Adjectives  be  divided.' 

Into  seven ;  viz : 

1st.  Distributive ;  as,  Each^  every ^  either^  neither* 
•2d.  Demonstrative  ;  as,  This^  that,  these,  those,  yonder, 

3d.  Indefinite  ;  as,  All,  such,  some, 
'4th.  Interrogative ;  as,    What,  ivhich, 

5th.  Numeral;  as,  One,  two,  twenty,  &c. 
■6th.  Ordinal;  as,  First,^^econd,  third,  ke, 

7th.  Circumstantial ;  as.  An  Arabian  horse.     A  desert 
'whistle,  &c.     (See  Illustrative  and  Constructive  Grammar.) 

MODEL. 

'^''&ery  man  helps  a  little." 

Every  is  a  Specifying  AiijettivOp  and  belongs  to  man, 
^according  to  Rule  15. 

Why  is  every  an  Adjective  ? 

Because  it  is  addeh]  to  a  noun. 

"Why  Specifjritig  or  limiting  ? 

Because  it  limits  the  meaning  of  the  "noun  without  ex- 
'.pressing  quality. 

EXERCISES. 

Some  men  are  not  wise.  All  men  are  mortal.  Each 
individual  fills  a  space  in  creation.  Three  ladies  walked 
into  the  garden.  Adam  was  the  first  man.  Those  young 
ladies  are  handsome.  This  man  is  unhappy.  That  day 
was  hot.  All  great 'men  are  Jiot  wise.  Some  men  labor, 
others  do  not.  AllWe,  like  sheep,  have  gone  astray.  He 
has  an  Arabian  horse.  Demosthenes  was  an  AtheniaCft 
^Orator.    Jefferson  was  an  Amerioan  citizen. 


iLESSON  XXIX. 


AD^fiRBS  'OR  MODIFIERS, 
'^ititis  dn  Aiivefb,  or  Modifier  .? 

An  adverb  is  a  'Syor^  ^9e^  to  modify  the  meaning  of 


T^  YORK'S  ILLDTSTliATIVE  AND 

verbs,  participles,  adjectives  or  other  adverbs ;  as,  She 
walks  gracefully/.  I  see  a  cloud  moving  slowly.  A  very 
good  pen  writes  extremely  tvell. 

Rem. — It  would  be  better,  perhaps,  to  call  those  Ad- 
verbs which  modify  Adjectives,  Secoyidary  or  Helping  Ad- 
jectives ;  since  they  limits  nouns  or  pronouns  indirectly 
through  the  medium  of  the  Adjectives  which  they  limit 
directly.  We  would,^also,  suggest  the  propriety  of  call- 
ing such  Adverbs  as  modify  other  Adverbs,  Secondary  or 
Helping  Adverbs, 

Into  how  many  classes,  may  Adrerbs  be  divided  ? 

Though  Adverbs  express  a  great  variety  of  meaning  and 
shades  of  meaning,  yet  the  principal  Adverbs  may  be  in- 
cluded in  four  classes  ;  viz :  Time,  place,  cawse^  and'  man- 
ner. 

To  what  questions,  do  Adverbs  of  placs  answer  ? 

To  the  questions  where,  wJiither,  whence;  as^  Where, 
there,  above,  &c. 

To  what  questions,  do  Adverbs  of  time  answer  ? 

To  the  questions  when,  how  long,  how  often  ;  as.  Then, 
yesterday,  often,  &c. 

To  what  questions,  do  Adverbs  of  cause  answer? 

They  answer  to  the  questions  why,  wherefore ;  as,  W%, 
ivheref^re,  therefore,  kc. 

To  what  question,  do  Adverbs  of  manner  answer? 

They  answer  to  the  question  hoiv  ;  as,  Elegantly,  faith^ 
fully,  fairly,  &c. 

MODEL. 

The  day  glides  sweetly. 

Sweetly  is  an  Adverb,  and  modifies  the  verb  glides,  ac- 
cording to  Kule  25. 

Why  is  Sweetly  an  adverb  ? 

Because  it  modifies  the  meaning  of  the  verb  glides. 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR.  77 

la  modifying  the  moaning  of  the  verb  glides,  what  does  it  point  out  ? 

It  points  out  the  manner  of  its  action. 

To  what  class,  then,  does  it  belong  ? 

It  belongs  to  the  class  of  Manner, 

EXERCISES. 

The  river  flows  rapidly.  The  bird  flies  swiftly.  He  is 
thei*«.  Where  is  Thomas  ?  Why  do  you  delay  ?  ^  The 
lowering  clouds  move  slowly.  We  shall  get  the  mail  to- 
morrow. When  shall  I  hear  from  you?  He  is  not  at 
home.  The  weather  is  very  cold.  She  writes  exceedingly 
well.     Surely  he  will  return  soon.. 


LESSON  XXX.      AAA, 

OP   PREPOSITIONS. 
"What  is  a  Preposition  ? 

A  Prejjositwn  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words,  and 
show  the  relation  between  them;  as,  He  went  to  New 
York. 

Rem. —  To,  in  this  sentence,  connects  tvent  and  Neio 
York,  and  it,  also,  shows  the  relation  which  Neiv  York 
bears  to  tvent.  The  connective  quality  will  readily  be  per- 
ceived by  omitting  the  preposition ;  thus,  He  went  New 
York.     Here  the  total  want  of  connection  is  obvious. 

Since  Prepositions  connect  words,  and  ahow  the  relation  between  them, 
how  many  terms  must  every  Preposition  have  ? 

Two,  viz  :  Antecedent  and  Subsequent, 

How  would  >ou  define  the  A^Uecedent  term  ? 

The  Antecedent  tQYm  is  so  called,  because  \i  precedes  the 
Preposition  in  the  natural  order  of  construction. 

What  ia  the  SuheeqHcnt  term  ? 

The  subsequent  term  folknvs  the  Preposition  in  the  nata- 
rftl  order  of  construction. 


*1%  York's  iLLusTRAirv^E  and 

Wbaf  parts  of  speech  may  b©  used  as  the  Antecedent  term? 

A  noun  or  pronoun,  verb,  participle,  adjective,  and  erea 
an  adverb. 

What  may  be  used  as  the  Subeequent  ? 

A  noun,  pronoun,  participle,  cr  -^art  of  a  sentcMCe. 

Rem. — When  a  Participle  is  tised  as  a  Subsequent  term 
of  a  Preposition,  it  partakes  of  the  meaning  of  a  noun, 
and  is  frequently  called  by  .grammarians  a  Participial 
jioun  ;  as.  He  earns  a  livelihood  by  tvriting. 

In  what  case,  is  the  Subsequent  term  of  every  Preposition? 

It  is  in  the  objective  case,  and  governed  by  the  Preposi- 
tion. 

In  order  to  ascertain  what  words  are  connected  bv  Pre- 
positions, you  must  make  the  sense  your  guide, — guided 
\j  this,  you  will  generally  be  able  to  determine  what  words 
are  Prepositions,  and  what  they  connect,  without  tlie  aid 
■of  a  List  of  Prepositions. 

MODEL. 

Lot  fled  with  his  two  daughters,  /rom  Sodom  to  ih^ 
•^nountains. 

-From  is  a  Preposition,  and  coik'nects  .jied  and  Sodom^ 
and  shows  the  relation  between  them,  according  to  Rule 
XXX. 

Rem. —  wall  and  <to,  in  the  above  example,  are,  also, 
^^repositions,  having  the  same  Antecedent  i^rm^fled ;  hence 
it  will  be  perceived  'that  several  ^^repositions  may  have  tb^ 
tjame  Antecedent  term. 

Why  is  from  a  Preposition? 

Because  it  connects  "words,  and  shoiys  the  relatioia  be- 
tween them. 

iEXERCISES. 

There  -was  a  marriage  in  Cana  of  '(jralilee.  The  sun 
•chines  through  the  window  upon  the  floor.  Birds  fly  in 
the  air,     A  green,  nan'olv  vak  a,p,peared  'before  us ;  its 


CO!sSl?RUCTIVJS   GRAMMAR,  T?^ 

nrinSing  stream  murmured  through  the  grcvc ;  the  darlc 
"hosts  of  Rothmar  stood  on  its  banks,  with  their  glittering 
■spears.  She  sits  at  the  window.  Her  ways  are  ways  of 
pleass;iitness. 


LESSON  XXXL 

OlF  CONJUNCTrONS   O'E   CONNECTIVES. 
What  is  a  Conjunction,  or  Connective  ? 

A  Con^Undtion  is  a  word,  I'scd  to  connect  phrases  and 
'clauses  of  sentences,  and,  also,  words  of  the  same  con- 
struction, thereby  enabling  the  speaker  or  writer  to  con- 
tinue discourse  at  pleasure ;  as,  Wheat  grows  in  the  field, 
'and  men  reap  it.     Martha  and  Mary  were  sisters. 

Are  Conjunctions  ever  used  after  a  fall  point,  or  period? 

They  are  sometimes ;  therel^y  manifesting  some  relation 
between  sentences  in  the  general  tenor  of  discourse. 

IIow  are  Cocjunctions  generally  divided? 

They  are  generally  divided  into  "Ccpulative  and  Disjunc- 
tive. 

Is  this  division  important  ? 

It  is  not ;  but  -is,  perhaps,  worse  than  useless.  (Sec 
Illustrative  and  Oo'nstructive  Grammar;  also,  Dr.  Web- 
ster's Improved  Grammar.) 

Name  the  principal  Conjunctions,  used  in  connecting  discourse? 

They  are  ani^  hut,  or^  nor,  yet,  than,  if,  though,  Ust,  im- 

'less,  &c. 

(For  the  classification  of  Connectives,  see  Elements  of 

sentences,  P«-rt  First.) 

MODEL. 

'Ood  creaJted  the  heavens  aiid  the  earth. 
And  is  a  Conjunction,  and  connects  heavens  and  earthy 
•a^ccording  to  Rulo  22, 


80  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

Rem. — In  parsing  Conjunctions  which  connect  phrases 
and  clauses,  no  rule  need  be  applied. 

EXERCISES. 

Claj  and  Webster  were  distinguished  Senators.  Time 
slept  on  flowers,  and  lent  his  glasses  to  hope.  The  wicked 
is  driven  away  in  his  wickedness ;  but  the  righteous  hath 
hope  in  his  death.  Mary  and  Eliza  play.  James  will  im- 
prove, if  he  study.  Obey  my  precepts,  unless  you  wish 
to  injure  yourselves.  Ignorance  or  negligence  has  caused 
this  mistake. 


LESSON  XXXI. 

OF  INTERJECTIONS   OR   EXCLAMATIONS. 
Whan  is  an  Exclamation  [Interjection]  ? 

An  JExclamation  is  any  sudden  expression  of  joy,  grief, 
disgust,  calling,  &c.;  as,  0  joyful  sound  of  gospel  grace! 
Alas  !  I  fear  for  life  !  Turn  from  your  evil  ways,  0  houw 
of  Israel!  &c. 

Rem.  1 — Considering  the  etymological  import  of  the 
term  Interjection,  it  will,  perhaps,  be  conceded  by  all  that 
the  name  is  inappropriate ;  since  but  comparatively  few  of 
the  words  called  Interjections,  are  thrown  between  the  parts 
of  a  sentence ;  the  terra  Exclamation  is,  therefore,  to  be 
preferred.  This  is  recommended  by  Dr.  Webster  and  other 
able  philologists. 

Rem.  2 — Since  Exclamations  have  no  dependent  con- 
struction, they  can  have  no  government,  nor  scarcely  can 
they  be  said  to  belong  to  written  language. 

MODEL. 

Ala8  I  and  did  my  Saviour  bleed  ? 

Alas  is  an  Exclamation  [Interjection] ;  it  is  an  expres- 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  81 

sion  of  grief;  it  has  no  dependent  construction  in  the  sen- 
tence, according  to  Rule  XXXI. 

EXERCISES. 

Oh !  what  a  fall  was  there.  Lo  !  from  their  seats,  the 
mountains  leap.  Alas  !  I  fear  for  life.  Ah  !  whither  shall 
I  fly  ?  What !  take  my  money,  and  my  life  too  !  Eie  ! 
how  angry  he  is. 


LESSON  XXXIIL 


OF  THE   CASES  INDEPENDENT,   ABSOLUTE,   AND   APPOSITION. 

When  is  a  noun  or  prononn  said  t»  be  in    tho  Nominative  case   Inde- 
pendent ? 

It  is  said  to  be  in  the  Case  Independent  when  directly 
addressed ;  as,  James,  I  desire  you  to  study. 

When  Is  a  noun  or  pronoun  said  to  be  in  the  Nominative  Case  Absolute  f 

When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  placed  before  a  participle, 
having  no  verb  to  agree  with  it,  it  is  in  the  nominative 
case  Absolut© ;  as,  The  sun  having  risen,  we  pursued  our 
journey. 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  said  to  be  in  Apposition  ! 

When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  appended  to  another  noun 
or  pronoun  for  explanation  or  emphasis,  it  is  said  to  be  in 
Apposition  with  it ;  as,  Paul,  the  great  Apostle,  was  emi- 
nent for  his  Christian  zeal. 

Rem. — As  the  case  in  Apposition  must  always  agree  in 
case  with  the  principal  word,  it  must  be  construed  in  the 
same  member ;  as,  [Daniel  Webster,  the  distinguished 
Statesman  and  Orator,  now  reposes]  (in  the  silent  grave.) 

MODEL  I. 

iBof/Sf  study  your  lessons. 


82*  YORK'S  I&iiUSTRAIlJffE  AND 

Boy%  is  a  common  noun,  masculisue  gender,  second  per* 
son,  plural,  and  is  in  the  Nominaitive  case  Indiependent,, 
according  to  Rule  27. 

MODEL  2.. 

J  being  in  great  haste,  he  consentedl 

J  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  singular, 
and  in  the  nominative  case  Absolute,. according  to  Rulo  28. 

MODEL  3. 

John,  the  beloved  Disciple,  -was  banished. 

Disciple  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  masculine  gendie^y. 
third  person,  singular,  and  is  in  the  nominative  case^  put 
by  Apposition  with  J^hn,  according  to  Rule  3. 

EXERCISES. 

Young  man,  you;ha,ve  ruined  yourself,,  anji  injured  your- 
friend.  Horace,  thou.,  learnest  many  lessons..  The  Gene- 
ral being  slain,  the  army  was  routed.  G]lie  moon  having, 
risen,  we  resumed  our  march.  The  Butterfly,  child  of  the- 
summer,  flutters  in  the  sun.  She  descending,  the  ladder 
fell.  Make  not  my  Father's  house,  a  house  of  merchan- 
dise. Ye  fields  of  light,  celestial  plains,  ye  scenes  divinely 
fair^  proclaim  your  Maker's  wondrous  power. 


PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES.. 

[You  may  now  Apalyse,  Construe,  and  Parae  tho  following  sentenceu 
^hich  contain  alL  the  Parts  of  speech;  you  may,  also, assign  the  reason  for 
th«  punctuation,  and  quote  tho  rules.] 

Eliza  went  with  Mary  to  the  well  for  water.     The  AU 
wise  Creator  bestowed,  the  power  of  speech  upon  nmn  for 
the  best  purpose.     Pale  Cyn^thia  declining  clips  the  hori- 
zon.    Man  beholds  the  t;^vinkling  stars  adorning,  night's, 
blue  a-rclu     Rothmiar  sunk  benea;tih  my  sword.     Thou  who 


GONSTRUCTIYE:  ORAMMAK,.  8^ 

hast  been  a  witijiess  of  the  fact,,  canst  state- it.  The  raia 
having  ceased^  th^  dark  clouds  rolled  away.  Bjeneath  the^ 
pale  beams  of  the  moon,  the  Indian  lover  sat,  and,  in 
piteous  tones,  bewailed  her  sadi  condition.  If  youth  be 
trifled  away  without  improvement,  manhood  will  be  con- 
temptible, and  old  age,  miserable.  The  sun  shines  upon 
all  men  who  willl  receive  his  rays  which  he  sends,  from  the 
heavens.  John  the  Baptist  came,  preaching  in  the- wilder- 
ness of  Judea.  Jesus  depa^t'cd,  and  went  into  the  garts  ofT 
Galilee. 

Thero  I  shall  bathe  my  weary  soul 

In  seas  of  heavenly  rest, 
And  not  a  wave  of  trouble  roll 
Across  my  peaceful  breast. 

We  had  heard  the  news  before  the  messenger  arrived.  The 
^ork  might  have  been  finished  sooner.  Susan  may  visit 
her  sister  who  lives  in  the  country ;  but  Lucinda  must  re- 
ma^n  at  home  with  her  mother.  Go  ye  into  all  the  world,. 
ai>d  preach  my  Gospel  to  every  creature. 

Alas  !  the  jcys  that  fortune  brings, 

Are  trifling,  and  decay; 
And  those  who  mind  the  paltry  things, 

More  trifling  still  than  they. 

The  value  of  the  Christian  faith,  may  be  estimated  from 
the  consolations  which  iitr  affords.  He  leadeth  me  in  the 
paths  of  righteousness,.  f-Or  his  name's  sake.  The  eyes  of" 
a  fool  are  in  the  ends  of  the  earth.  The  good  taste  of  the 
present  age,  has  not  allowed  us  to  neglect  the  cultivation 
of  the  English  language.  True  cheerfulness  makes  a  man 
happy  in  himself,  and  promo4>e^  the  happiness  of  all  who 
are  around  him.. 

Charles,  you,  by  your  diligence,  have  made  easy  work 
of  the  task  which  was  given  you  by  your  preceptor.  Bo- 
naparte being  banished,  peace  was  restored  to  Europe, 
Boys,  study  your  lessons  closely,  if  you  wish  to.  succeed. 
Pavil,  the  great  Apostle  of  the  Gentles,  suffered  martyr 
dom  at  Rome.  Why  seek  ye  the  living  among  the  dead  ? 
Canst  thou  expect,  thou  betrayer  of  innocence,,  to-  escape 
tlic  hand  of  vengeance  ? 

She  makes  the  heavy  heart  to  sing. 

And  cheers  the  wintry  gloom. 
Floats  on  the  ppicy  galea  of  spring, 

A^d.makes  all  Nature  blpoct. 


84  York's  illustrative  and 

Dost  thou  not  behold,  Malvina,  a  rock  with  its  head  of 
heath  ?     The  law  was  given  by  Moses  ;  but  grace  and  trutJ 
came  by  Jesus  Christ.     John,  the  Apostle,  was  banishet* 
to  the  isle  of  Patmos. 

Your  friends  may  ^i«,  and  haste  awaj 

To  that  blest  world  of  rest  ; 
But  Marj's  part,  with  you,  will  staj, 

And  ever  make  you  blest. 


LESSON  XXXIV. 

OF  SYNTAX. 
Of  what  <io«8  Syntax  treat? 

It  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentencea. 

Do  you  remember  what  a  sentence  is  ? 

A  sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as  asserts  a 
fact. 

What  elements  are  necessary  to  asflsrt  a  fact/ 

'  The  Subject  and  Predicate ;  as,  The  sun  shines. 

Upon  what  principles,  are  most  of  the  rules  of  Syntax  based  ? 

They  are  mostly  based  upon  three  principles,  viz :  Gov- 
ernment, Agreement,  or  Concord,  and  Position. 

In  what  does  Government  oonsiet? 

Government  is  that  power  which  one  word  has  in  direct- 
ing the  Mode,  Tense,  or  Case  of  another  word. 

What  is  Agreement  or  Concord  f 

Concord  is  the  agreement  of  one  word  with  another  in 
^nder,  person^  number^  and  ease, 

Wkat  is  Position  ? 

Position  is  the  place  which  a  word  occupies  in  a  sent- 
ience. 


CtiNSTRlQCTIVK   GIUMMAR.  §;"> 


LESSON  XXXV, 

RULES    OF    SYNTAX. 


RULE  I— The  subject  ^f  the  verb  must  he  in  the  Domi- 
uative  case ;  as,  John  writes, 

_  RULE  II— A  noun  cr  pronoun,  predicat-ed  <^f  die  sub- 
ject, must  be  m  the  nominative  case:  as,  Tliou  art  Jie.— 
Law  IS  a  rule  of  action. 

RULE  III— A  noiEn  or  pron^jum,  used  to  identify  another 
noun  or  pronoun,  is  put  by  apposition  in  the  same  case  • 
as,  ^.olomon,  the  scm  of  David,  wrote  many  proverbs. 

^  RULE  IV— A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case, 
IS  governed  by  the  word  which  it  limits;  as,  John's  book! 
Jits  beiyig  aioay  from  Jwme,  was  the  cause  of  great  disan- 
pomtment.  -  ' 

RULE  V— The  infinitive  mode  is  governed  by  the  word 
which  It  limits ;  as,  They  went  to  see  him.  She  is  earp^r 
TO  LEARN.     I  heard  him  say  it. 

RULE  VI — The  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominritive  in 
number  and  person ;  as,  Thou  seest.  He  ^fces,  I  see.  Wo 
see,  &c. 

RULE  VII — Two  or  more  nominatives  in  the  singular, 
connected  by  and,  must  liave  verbs  agreeinn  witK  them  lu 
the  plural ;  as,  Cato  and  Plato  zvere  wise. 

RULE  Vni — Two  or  more  nominatives  in  the  siniTular, 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  must  huve  verbs  agreeing  with 
them  in  the  singular ;  as  John  or  James  2vas  iH. 

RULE  IX— When  a  verb  agrees  with  the  Infinitive 
mode  or  part  of  a  sentence  for  its  subject,  it  must  be  in 
trie  third  person  singular;  as,  To  die  for  one's  country,  is 
glorious.     To  study  is  profitable. 

RULE  X — A  collective  noun  conveying  idea  of  unity, 
generally  has  a  verb  and  pronoun  agreeing  with-it  in  tho 
singular :  as,  The  nation  tvas  once  powerful,  but  now  if  is 
feeble. 

RULE  XL — A  collective  noun  conveying  idea  of  plu- 


86  York's  illustrative  and 

rality^  generally  has  a  verb  and  pronoun  in  the  plural  ;  a?. 
The  committee  were  divided  in  their  sentiments. 

RULE  XII— Pronouns  agree  witli  their  antecedents  in 
gender,  number,  and  person  ;  as,  John  lost  his  knife.  He 
'vho  studies,  ^Yill  improve. 

RULE  XTII — The  indefinite  article  belongs  to  nouns  in 
the  singular  number  ;  as,  A  man.     An  hour. 

RULE  XIV. "^ — -The  definite  article  belongs  to  nouns  of 
both  numbers  ;  as,  The  man.      The  men. 

RULE  XV — Adjectives  belong  to  nouns  and  pronouns: 
as,  A  good  man.     She  is  lianchome. 

RL  LE  XVI— Adjectives  sometimes  belong  to  the  infin- 
itive mode,  part  of  a  sentence,  or  a  whole  sentence ;  as, 
To  see  is  pleasant.    Agreeable  to  this,  ivc  read  of  nam  f^ 
■  being  blotted  out  of  God's  book. 

Quality  may  be  predicated  of  action ;  hence 

RULE  X.VII — Adjectives  are  used  to  qualify  the  action 
of  verbs,  and  to  express  the  qualities  of  things  in  connec- 
tion ^vith  the  action  by  which  they  are  produced  ;  as,  Open 
thine  hand  ivide.  The  eggs  boil  ha?\L  The  tree  looks 
green. 

RULE  XVIII— Participles  refer  to  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns ;  as,  Mary  having  written  her  letter,  mailed  it,  I 
see  him  walking. 

RULE  XIX — The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the 
active  voice,  is  put  in  the  objective  case;  as,  1  saw  IIIM 
ivhom  you  met. 

RULE  XX — The  object  of  a  transitive  participle  is  put 
in  the  objective  case;  as,  I  saw  a  man  beating  his  horse, 

RULE  XXI — The  object  of  a  preposition  is  put  in  the 
objective  case  ;  as,  Henry  went  with  me. 

RULE  XXII — Conjunctions  connect  words  of  the  same 
sort ;   as,  Johi  and  James.      Good  and  bad,  etc. 

*  This  \s  not  important,  since  there  is  no  possibility  of  violating  it. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  87 

RULE  XXIII — A  Conjunction  connects  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns of  the  same  case ;  as,  Ifenry  and  WilUam  obey 
their  teacher, 

RULE  XXIV— 'Conjunctions  generally  connect  verbs 
^)f  like  modes  and  tenses;  as.  Kingdoms  rine  ^xidfall. 

RULE  XXV — Adverbs  modify  verbs,  participles,  ad- 
jectives, and  other  adverbs :  as,  He  writes  hadly. 

RULE  XXVI — Euphony  re<][uires  that  the  sign  to  of 
the  infinitive  should  be  omitted  when  construed  with  the 
following  verbs,  viz :  hid^  dare,  fe-el,  make^  let,  hear,  help, 
.see,  need,  and  their  participles;  as,  Ke  bid  me  t'ome.  We 
felt  the  earth  tremble.     I  heard  him  speak,  etc, 

RULE  XXVII — When  an  address  is  made,  the  name 
of  the  person  or  thing  addressed,  is  put  mt]\Q.  nominative'^'' 
case  independent',  as,  rfames,  I  desire  you  to  study. 

RLTLE  XXVIII — A  noun  or  pronoun,  placed  before  a 
participle,  and  having  no  verb  to  agree  with  it,  nor  word 
on  which  to  depend,  is  put  in  the  nominative  ease  ahsoluP' : 
as,  The  sun  having  risen,  we  pursued  our  journey. 

RULE  XXIX — Some  verbs  in  the  imperative  mode 
have  no  nominative  specified;  as,  ''God  £aid,  let  there  be 
light,  and  there  was  light, 

RULE  XXX — Prepositions  point  out  the  relation  be- 
tween their  antecedent  and  subsequent  terms ;  as,  Henry 
'Went  to  the  eiti/  of  N'ew  York. 

RULE  XXXI. — Exclamations  [Interjections]  have  no 
dependent  construction. 

Rem. — The  last  throe  rules  mny  be  used  in  parsing,  or  they  may 
h^  omitted—just  as  it  may  suit  the  taste  of  teachers. 


*  It  would  be  better,  perhaps,  to  drop  the  word  nominatire,  aod  aimply 
fay  "  The  case  jMrfc^wWo/C." 


88  YORK'S   ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

LESSOR  XXXYl, 

vOB^RUL||,  Oi:  SYNTAX   WITH    NOTES  ;    AND   SENTENCES  TO  BE 

eORRECTEI?. 

RULE  I.— The  subject  of  the  verb  must  be  in  the  nomi- 
native case;  aSy  ^'- John  writes." 

Note  1. — The  infinitive  mode,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  or  a  whole 
sentence,  may  be  the  subject  of  a  verb;  as,  "  To  see\  is  pleasant." — 
''  To  die  for  one^»  coamtry^  is  glorious."      , 

Note  2. — When  a  pronoun  is  the  subject  of  a  verb,  it  must  take 
the  subjective  form  ;  as,  "/,  tliou,  lie^  sJie^  ice,  tliey,  etc, 

FALSE  SYNTAX, 

"  Them  told  it.'^ 

Is  this  sentence  correct  f 

It  is  not. 

Why? 

Them  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  verb^  but  has  not  the 
subjective  form.  It  should  be,  "  They  told  it,"  according 
to  Rule  1. 

EXERCISEB. 

;    [Correct  the  sentences  under  each  rule,  and  parse  the  wordff  corrected.] 

Him  Struck  first.  Her  was  not  to  blame.  Them  were 
in  fault.  Who  said  it  ?  Me  said  it.  Him  is  in  the  field. 
Her  is  at  home. 


LESSON  XXXVIL 

RULES  AND  CGRKECTIONS    CONTINUED. 

IIULE  II'- A  noun  or  pronoun,  predicated  of  the  sub- 
ject, must  be  in  the  nominative  ease;  as,  '*  Thou  art  he.''' 

FALSE  SYNTAX, 

"  John  is  him,'* 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  89 

Is  this  sentence  corract  / 

It  is  not. 

Whjl 

Hwi  is  predicated  of  the  siibject  Jolin^  but  is  not  in  the 
r.ominative  case,  or  has  not  the  subjective  form.  It  shouhl 
be,  ''John  is  7^,"  according  to  rule  2. 

EXERCISES.  \ 

Is  it  f,^?  I  thought  it  >vas  Mm,  Mary  was  not  her. 
That  boy  is  him.  She  said  it  was  them.  It  was  her  that 
told  it.     Ib  it  him  with  whom  he  is  angry  ? 

RULE  HI.— A   noun   or    pronoun,    used    to    ideni'^'' 
Another  noun  or  pronoun,  is  put  by  apposition  in  the  " 
<3ase  ;  as,  "  Cicero,  the  Orator,"' 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
''He  took  it  to  be  ir 

Is  this  sentence  correct? 

It  is  not. 

State  the  reaaon. 

/  is  used  to  identify  it.,  but  is  not  in  the  eame  case.  It 
■sho.uld  be,  ^'  He  took  it  to  be  me." 

EXERCISES. 

I  believe  it  to  be  ^he.  She  mistook  me  to  be  he.  We 
adore  the  Divine  Beings  He  who  sustains  all  things.  It 
%vas  John,  him  who  preached  repentance-  I  saw  Mary,  she 

•:hat  vou  visited. 


LESSON  XXXVIIL 

RULE  IV.— A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case, 
is  governe<l  by  the  word  which  it  limits ;  as,  "  Johntf 
book." 


90  York's  illustrative  ani> 

Note  1. — The  possessire  case  of  nouns  should  always  be  distin- 
guished by  an  apostrophe. 

Note  2. — Nouns,  plurahzed  by  s,  retain  the  apostrophe,  rejecting 
the  additional  »;  as^  Those  hoys^  books. 

Note  3. — Any  noun  ending  in  a  hissing  sound,  foliowed  by  another 
commencing  with  a  hissing  sour.d,  retains  the  apostrophe  only ;  a» 
"  Eighteoume^i  sake." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
"  That  girh  book  is  on  the  table." 

Is  thiB  sentence  cwrect  ? 

It  is  not. 

Point  out  what  is  frrongy  aad  correct. 

Girh  is  in  the  possessive  case,  but  not  distinguished  hj 
the  apostrophe.  The  apostrophe  should  be  inserted  be- 
tween the  I  and  s  ;  thus,  That  girVs  book. 

EXERCISES. 

Those  hoys  books  are  cleaner  than  that  ffirls  book.  The 
boys  hat  is  under  the  bed.  Peters  dog  bit  Johns  finger. 
The  Lords  day  should  be  kept  holy.  He  does  it  for  con- 
science  sake. 

RULE  V. — The  infinitive  mode  is  governed  by  the  word 
which  it  limits  ;  as,  "They  went  to  see  him." 


LESSON  XXXIX, 

RULE  VI. — A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  vh 
number  and  person  ;  as,  "Thou  «e^8f."  ''He  «e^«."  "I 
see,''     "  A'e  see.'* 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
''llovethr 

la  thia  sentence  correct* 

It  is  not ;  for  the  verb  lovetli  has  the  termination  of  the 


Ill 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  91^ 

third  person  singular,  solemn  style.     It  should  be  love  to 
agree  with  its  nominanve  I  of  the  first  person,  singular 
according  to  Rule  VI.  -^"guiar, 

e.5:ercises. 

He  are  at  home.     I  is  not  well.     Thou  has  come  at  last 
ihe  girls  has  returned.     He  hast  three  books.     You  has 
a  fine  dress.     The    last    week   were  very  hot.     She  take 
snun.     1  just  shuts  my  eyes,  and  goes  it. 

RULE  yiL— Two  or  more  nominatives  in  tho  singular 
connected  by  and,  must  have  verbs  agreeing  with  them  ' 
the  plural;  as,  ^'Cato  and  Plato  were  wise." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
"  Henry  and  William  has  returned." 

Is  this  sentence  correct/ 

It  is  not  ? 

Why  .? 

The  verb,  has  returned,  has  the  singular  form,  but  it  h 
two  nominatives  in  the  singular  connected  by  and;  it  should 
thcTefore  be  Henry  and  William  h-^^ve  returned,  according 
to  Rule  VIL  ^ 

EXERCISES. 

Martha  and  Mary  was  sisters.  John  and  Peter  loves 
play.  DayiJ  and  Jonathan  was  strongly  attached  to  each 
other.     Eliza  and  her  sister  has  gone  into  the  country. 


as 


LESSON  XL, 

RULE  VIII.— Two  or  more  nominatives  in  the  singular 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  must  have   verbs  agreeing  with 
thcra  m  the  singular ;  as,  "  Jo^n  or  James  ivas  ill." 


92  tork's  illustkative  awi> 

FALSE  SYN'TAX. 

""^  James  ©r  Thomas  have  done  thit*  mischief." 

How  do  you  correct  this  sentence  ? 

It  should  he,  James   or  Thomas  has-  done  this  mischiefs 

Why  ; 

Because  the  verb  mi^^st  he  singular  to  agree  with  it& 
nominatives  ia  the  singular,  connected  by  or,  according  to 
Eule  YIII, 

EXERCISES. 

Either  he  &r  she  are  to  hlarii-e.  Neither  Henry  nor  Tho- 
mas tver»  m  fault.  Ignorance  or  bigotry  were  the  cause  of 
this  cruelty.  Neither  the  miser  nor  the  spendthrift  are 
happy, 

HULE  IX — -rWhen  a  ver!)  agrees  with  the  infinitive? 
mode  or  part  of  a  sentence  for  its  subject,  it  must  be  of 
the  third  person,  singular;  as,  "To  see^  is  pleasant.'" 
"  To  die  f&r  ones  conntry^  ig  g^wious." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

^'  To  seek  God,  are  wisdom."" 

Is  this  sentence  correct  % 

It  is  not. 

State  the  reason. 

The  Terb  ha&  the  plural  form,  whereas- it  has  pa^t  of  » 
sentence  for  its  subject ;  it  is,  therefore,  incorrect.  It 
should  be.  To  seek  God,  is  wisdom,  according  to  Rule  IX. 

EXERCISES. 

That  the  earth  rs  a  sphere,  are  easily  proved.  To  see 
our  friends,  are  pleasant.  To  publish  slanderous  words^ 
are  wrong.  To  seek  our  own  happiness  by  violating  the 
rights  oi  others,  are  contrary  to  the  Golden  Rule.  To 
learn,  are  pleasant. 


COXSTIIUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  9o 

RULE  X---A  collective  noun  conveying  idea  of  unity, 
generally  has  a  verb  and  pronoun  agreeing  with  it  in  the 
singular  ;  as,  ''  That  nation  loas  once  powerful ;  but  now 
it  is  feeble." 

FALSE   SYNTAX. 

*'  The  council  were  unanimous." 

Is  this  sentence  correct? 

It  is  not. 

State  the  reason  why  it  is  not  correct? 

The  nominative  is  a  collective  noun,  conveying  idea  of 
unity  ;  the  verb,  therefore,  should  be  singular;  thus,  The 
council  ivas  unanimous. 

EXERCISES. 

The  society  meet  annually.  The  meeting  ivere  large. 
The  army  were  routed.     Congress  have  adjourned. 

RULE  XI— A  collective  noun  conveying  idea  of  plu- 
rality, generally  has  a  verb  and  pronoun  agreeing  witli  it 
in  the  plural;  as,  "The  council  ivere  divided  in  their  sen- 
timents." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

'^  The  committee  was  divided  in  its  sentiments.'" 
Say  the  committee  were  divided  in  tJteir  sentiments. 

Why  should  the  verb  and  pronoun,  in  this  sentence,  be  plural/ 

Because  the  noun  committee  conveys  the  idea  of  plu- 
rality. 

EXERCISES. 

The  people  was  divided  in  its  sentiments,  some  adhering 
to  one  taction,  and  some  to  another.  The  multitude  pur- 
sues pleasure  as  its  chief  good. 


LESSON  XLI. 


RULE  X//.— Pronouns  agree  with  their  antecedents  in 


94  York's  illustrative  and 

gender,  number,  and  person;  as,   "John  lost  his  knife." 
''  He  ivho  studies,  will  improve." 

Note  1. — When  the  relative  relates  to  antecedents  of  different  per- 
sons, it  may  agree  with  either ;  but,  when  the  agreement  has  been 
determined,  it  must  be  continued  throughout  the  sentence;  as,  "  Thou 
art  the  Lord,  icJio  didst  choose  Abraham,  and  didst  bring  him  forth 
out  of  Ur  of  the  Chaldees." 

Note  2. — When  a  pronoun  relates  to  two  or  more  antecedents  in 
the  singular,  connected  by  and,,  it  must  be  in  the  plural ;  but,  if  its 
antecedents  are  connected  by  or  or  7ioi\  it  must  be  in  the  singular. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

"  Every  one  must  take  care  of  tJiemselves,'' 
Say  every  one  must  take  care  of  himself. 

Why  sboaid  it  be  Idmselff 

Because  the  antecedent  one  is  singular,  the  pronoun 
mu3t,  also,  be  singular,  according  Rule  XII. 

EJCERCISES. 

Every  body  is  accountable  for  their  own  conduct.  Every 
tree  bears  fruit,  according  to  his  own  kind.  Speak  to  the 
men,  and  say  to  him.  The  wheel  killed  another  man  who 
is  the  sixth  that  has  lost  their  life  by  this  means.  , 

RULE  XfII-.-7-The  indefinite  article  belongs  to  nouns 
in  the  singular  niilnber  ;  as,  A  man.     An  hour. 

Note. — A  should  be  used  before  words  commencing  with  a  conso- 
nant sound,  and  An  should  be  used  before  words  commencing  with 
vowel  sounds  ;  as,  A  book.     An  apple. 

Rem. — It  is  more  euphonious  to  use  An  before  words  commencing 
with  h  when  the  accent  is  on  the  second  syllable ;  as,  An  historic 

account. 

EXERCISES. 

The  children  have  been  playing  a  hour.  I  saw  an  man 
walking.  She  is  an  beautiful  lady.  An  horse  is  a  noble 
animal.  A  century  is  an  hundred  years.  A  honest  man 
is  an  great  man. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  9- 


LESSON  XLII. 


-RULE  XIV — The  definite  article  belongs  to  nouns  of 
both  numbers;  as,  ''  The  man."     *'  The  men." 

HL^LE  XV — Adjectives  belong  to  nouns  and  pronouns  ; 
as,  "  A  (food  man."     "  She  is  heautifuV 

Note  1. — Such  specifying  adjectives  as  are  varied  to  express  num- 
ber, must  agree  in  number  with  the  nouns  to  which  they  belong  ;  as, 
This,  that,  these,  those. 

''  These  sort  of  goods  is  not  fashionable.  Say,  This  sort  of  goods 
is  not  fashionable. 

EXERCISES. 

Those  sort  of  favors  does  real  injury.  Those  kind  of 
fruit  is  not  good.  Jam  not  pleased  with  these  sort  of  ex- 
pressions. 

Note  2. — Specifying  adjectives  of  the  numeral  kind,  require  nouns 
to  agree  in  number;  as,  One  man.     Ten  men. 

''  The  wall  is  ihvGQfoot  high."     Say,  The  wall  is  ihTe^feet  high. 

EXERCISES. 

llie  pole  is  Usawty  foot  long.  The  sound  is  thirty  mile 
wide,  and  three  fathom  deep.  The  Ohio  is  one  thousand 
miles  long.     The  room  is  thirty /oo^  long  and  twenty  wide. 

Note  3.— Double  comparatives  and  superlatives  should  not  be  used  ; 
as,  ''More  better."     ''Most  extremest." 

*♦  The  most  Higlicst  hath  created  us  for  His  own  glory."  Say.  The 
most  II\gh  hath  created,  &c. 

EXERCISES. 

I  will  show  you  a  more  better  way.  That  is  the  most 
tallest  man  /ever  saw.  He  is  worser  than  he  was.  That 
is  the  most  weakest  argument  I  have  ever  heard. 

NoTK  4. — When  two  objects  are  compared,  the  comparative  decree 
should  be  used  ;  and,  when  three  or  more,  the  superlative;  as,  Mary  is 
taller  than  her  sister.     Th?t  is  the  taliest  tree  in  the  forest! 


96  York's  illustrative  and 

.^^incs  is  the  tallest  of  the  two.     Say,  James  is  the  taller  of  the 

EXERCISES. 

He  is  the  iviser  of  the  three.  This  is  the  best  of  the 
two  ways.  Henry  is  the  strongest  of  the  two.  She  is  the 
better  of  her  class. 


LESSON  XLIII. 


RULE  XVL--Adjectives  sometimes  belong  to  the  infini- 
tive mode,  part  of  a  sentence,  or  a  whole  sentence ;  as, 
'^  To  see,  is  pleasant."  ^'Agreeable  to  this,  we  read  of 
names  being  blotted  out  of  God's  book." 

Quality  may  be  predicated  of  action ;  as, 

RULE  XVII — Adjectives  are  used  to  qualify  the  ac- 
tion ;of  verbs,  and  to  express  the  qualities  of  things  in 
connection  with  the  action  by  which  they  are  produced  ; 
as,  "  Open  thine  hand  wide"     "The  trees  look  green." 

— '^fS^  "       FALSE  SYNTAX. 
"Still  water  runs  deeply."  . 

la  this  sentence  correct.^ 

It  is  not.  It  should  be,  still  water  runs  deep,  according 
to  Rule  XVII. 

EXERCISES. 

The  fields  look^reshly  and  gayly.  She  looks  coldly. 
The  clay  burns  w^hitely.  The  rose  smells  sweetly.  Apples 
boil  softly. 

RULE  XVIII — Participles  refer  to  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns ;  as,  "/see  him  walking ."  "  Mary  having  tvritten 
the  letter,  mailed  it." 


CONSTRUCTIVE    CxRAMiVIAR.  97 

LESSON  XLIV. 

RULE  XIX— -The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the 
active  voice,  is  put  in  the  objective  case;  as,  "  I  saw  Jdm 
tvhom  you  met." 

FALSE  SYNTxVX. 

"  Who  seost  thou  ? 

li  this  sentence  correct/ 

It  is  not. 

St<ate  the  reason. 

Who  is  the  object  oF  the  transitive  verb  seest  m  the 
active  voice;  but  has  not  the  objective  iovm)  it  is,  there- 
fore, incorrect,  and  should  be,  Whom  seest  thou  '^  t 

EXERCISES. 

He  and  tkey  we  know.  They  who  will  not  study,  you 
must  correct.  He  that  is  studious,  you  should  encourjio-e. 
bhe  that  is  negligent,  reprove  sharply.  Whp  does  he  revile. 
He  declare  I  unto  you. 

RULE  XX~The  object  of  a  transitive$articiple,  must 
be  m  the  objective  case;  as,  ''I  saw  a  man  beating  his 
horsey 

RULE  XXI — The  object  of  a  preposition  is  put  in  the 
objective  case;  as,  "  Henry  went  ivith  me:' 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

"  Who  did  you  walk  with?"      * 

Is  this  sentence  correct? 

It  is  not.  ^ 

StAte  the  reason,  and  correct  it. 

Who  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  with ;  but  has  not 
the  objective  form.  It  should  be,  With  zvhom  did  you 
walk  ?  according  to  rule  XXI. 


08  "YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  A  XI) 

ES 


EXERCISES. 


lie  gave  the  fruit  to  /.  Between  /and  you,  there  is  a 
jrrcat  disparity  of  years.  The  teacher  spoke  to  he  and  I. 
With  who,  does  he  trifle  ? 


LESSON  XLV. 


,""      RULE  XXII— Conjunctions  connect  words  of  the  same 
r         sort;  as,  "  Jo/m  and  James>''    (root^  and  had.''    ^'- Grace- 
fully and  ra]pidly.'' 

I  REM.----This  rule  should  onl}^  be  applied  when  conjunctions  connect 

^words. 

RULE  XXIII — Conjunctions  connect  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns in  the  sa.me  case  ;  as,  "  Henry  and  William  obey 
their  teacher."  "They  assisted  Mm  and  me. '' '  '^David's  and 
Jonathan  s  friendship." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Eim  and  I  went.     Say,  Re  and  I  went. 

EXERCISES. 

He  and  them  have  no  dealings.  He  sent  it  to  her  and 
I.  She  and  me  are  cousins-  Him  and  they  are  brothers. 
He  went  with  her  and  L     Who  will  go  ?     lie  and  me. 

RULE  XXIV — Conjunctions  generally  connect  verbs 
of  like  modes  and  .tenses;  as,   "  Kingdoms  I'ise  and  fall.'' 


LESSON  XLVL 


RULE  XXV — Adverbs  modify  verbs,  participles,  ad- 
jectives, and  other  adverbs  ;  as,  *'  He  writes  welV 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMAL4JI.  ,t^9 

Note. — When  manner  is  expressed,  an  adcerh  should  be  etnployeri, 
ftnd^not  an  adjective  ;  as,  The  birds  sing  sweetly  She  dances  grace- 
faiy     Say,  She  dunces  gracefully* 

EXERCISES  FOR  CORRECTION. 

Clouds  are  moving  slow.  That  youiog  ladj  sings  sweet. 
The  bell  rings  merry.  Time  flies,  rapid.  She  cannot  hear 
good.     Ho  writes  bad.     That  boy  walks  awkward. 

Note  2.— Unnecessary  negatives  should  be  avoided;  as,  I  f/(?/i'^ 
know  nothing  about  it.  Say,  I  know  nothing  about  it,  or  .1  do  not 
know  any  thing  about  it. 

FOR  CORRECTION. 

Ho  never  says  nothing.  He  liairit  <rot  no  more.  He 
don't  do  nothing.  In  our  neighborhood,  no  body  never 
take  no  newspapers. 

RULE  XXVI — Euphony  requires  that  the  sign  to  of 
the  infinitive   should  be  omitted  v.'hen  construed  with  the 
following  verbs,  viz .  hid,  dare,  feel,  liclp,  make,  let,  Jiear, 
see,  need,  and  their  participles;  as,   ''He  bid  me  come." 
^'  We  felt  the  earth  trevihle,'"  etc. 

Note. — When  these  verbs  are  used  in  the  Passive  voice,  the  sif  n 
is  used;  as,  "He  was  often  heard  to  say.''"' 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Let  him  to  go*     Say,  Let  him  go. 

EXERCISES. 

Bid  him  to  depart.  I  felt  the  earth  to  shake.  1  heard 
her  to  say.  Help  him  to  work.  He  need  not  to  attend. 
I  saw  the  child  to  walk.  He  dare  not  to  do  it.  Make  th<> 
man  to  work.  fum--^ 


LESSON  XLVII. 
RULE  XXVII — When  an  address  is  made,  the  h^.^\: 


loo  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

of  the  person  or  thing  addressed,  is  put  in  the  nominative 
case  i7ide])endent ',  as,  ''James,  I  desire  you  to  study." 

RULE  XXVIII — A  noun  or  pronoun,  placed  before  a 
participle,  and  having  no  verb  to  agree  with  it,  is  put  in 
tlie  nominative  case  absolute ;  as  "  The  sun  havins:  risen, 
we  pursued  our  journey. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Me  being  in  great  haste,  he  consented.  Say,  /  being 
in  great  haste,  he  consented. 

EXERCISES. 

Her  descending,  the  ladder  fell.  It  was  said  to  me,  him 
being  in  company.  It  was  said  of  them,  him  being  present. 
Her  being  in  distress,  the  necessary  aid  was  sent. 

RULE  XXIX — Some  verbs  in  the  imperative  mode, 
have  no  nominative  specified  ;  as,  "  God  said,  let  there  be 
li^ht,  and  there  was  lio-ht.'' 

RULE  XXX — Prepositions  point  out  the  relations  be- 
tween their  antecedent  and  subsequent  terms  ;  as,  "  He 
■went  to  the  city  of  New  York.''' 

RULE  XXXI — Interjections  have  no  dependent  con- 
struction. 

Rem. — The  last  three  rules  may  be  used  in  parsing,  or  they  may  be 
omitted — -just  as  it  may  suit  the  taste  of  teachers. 

TO  BE  CORRECTED  BY  THE  "DIAGRAM  OF  TIME." 

MODEL — "I  finished  my  letter  before  the  mail  ar- 
rived." 

The  verb  finished  is  in  the  past  tense,  whereas  it  is  used 
in  thes^zor  of  two  'past  events ;  the  verb,  therefore,  is  in- 
correct ;  it  should  be  had  finished  in  the  pluperfect,  accord- 
ing to  Figure  4  of  the  *' Diagram  of  Time." 

EXERCISES. 

We  have  studied  our  lessons  yesterday.  I  never  drank 
bettor  water.     We  came  here  to-day.     Philosophers  have 


^OWfiTR'D'CTIVE  Q'RATtt!flX1U  101 

okade  gr^at  diso® verses  last  century.  After  I  IhaTC  <\uoted 
the  text,  5^o«.  will  see  its  a|*p feast i^a.  After  I  visited  Eu- 
rope, I  iiKtttTne<i  to  AraericiL.  The  thief  escaped  befoie 
the  g<&o(i«  were  missed.  John  wilil  e^rapfkte  his  t«,sk  hj 
die  uppciEte^.  tieae.  The  W'©rld  *vLll  Ixa^i'a  heen  de&troyed 
hy  £re^ 


LE&SON   XLVIJL 

False  Syntax  PRO-AfTStruousLT  Akrai^tgeb. 

1  John  Avritcs  beautifuL  I  shall  never  do  &o  no  moTC, 
This  is  him  wh©  1  ga*ve  the  "feo^k  t©.  Eliza  always  appears 
amiafelj.  That  house  is  sixty  foot  lorsg.  Wa-s  yoti  present 
as  the  preeessiea  ^aeeed.  Re  who  they  seel:  is  in  the 
SiousGo  Her  mother  and  her  were  aft  th«  celebration^  The 
master  i^(^uested  him  and  I  to  ivead  owr  ©impositions  more 
distititetly. 

2  Th«se  sort  of  !^(^0ks  are  %ea«LtifaL  Wh^t  "does  you 
think  of  him  row  ?  Thoit,  Thomae,  ehaU  see  these  animals 
of  which  yotE  speak-  Wih©  went  witk  Mary  Ub  church  ? 
Me.  Let  es  to  pro^eeed.  T<^  love  God  with  all  tliy  h^eart 
are  a  divide  €<?niiniLaiiid.  ifeither  man  Bor  woffiLaa  were 
present. 

S  High  hopes  amd  amfcitieus  views  is  «,  i^r^at  enemy  to 
tranquility.  Has  you  been  well  since  I  seen  you  last?  I 
iias-  A  too  great  variety  of  studies  weakeci  a^tid  dissipate 
the  imind.  He  has  went  to  town.  He  might  have  com- 
pleted tke  task  sooner,  but  li«  could  not  do  it  liettez'- 


LESSON  XLIX.  •^ 

Of  Colloquial  Inaccuracies. 

As  Colloquial  Inaccuracies  are  too  numerous  and  varied 
to  be  comprehended  by  any  syntactical  rules,  however 
8 


102 


YOKE  S  ILLUSTRATIVE  ^ND 


copious,  we  have  thrown  together  some  of  the  maceuracies^ 
and  arranged  the  correct  and  incorrect  expressions  in  par- 
allel columns.  Though  these  colloquial  inaccurgpcies  may 
vary  not  only  in  different  States,  but,  also,  in  different 
sections  of  the  same  State,  yet  they  may  nearly  all  be 
traced  to  three  leading  sources,  viz  :  1  Unwarrantable 
Contraction 8.  2  Redundant  words  or  Pleonastic  expres- 
sions^ and  S  Words  hadly  chomn  to  convey  the  sense  in- 
tended* 

CLASS  L 

Unwarrantable  Contractions. 

Though  some  contractions  are  admissible  in  familiar 
style,  yet  they  should  be  carefully  avoided  in  all  grave  or 
solemn  discourse. 


Incokiiect,  ■ 

1  aVrit  well, 

I  JicuD^nt  been  out, 

AVe  wefrot  there, 

She'd  heard  of  it, 

I  iis\l  to  know  itj 

Ih^e  seen  Vr, 

I  \'^po{ie  ^tv:ill, 

Lay  ^eni  on  the  table, 

Gim  me    some  bread, 

A  good'cel  too  short, 

He  Jiaint  none, 

You  do'itt  know  'zV;?, 

JoliTbS  got  enough, 

Caiit  she  0:0? 


COKRECT, 

I  am  not  well, 

I  have  not  been  out, 

We  were  >>ot  there. 

She  had  )irard  of  it, 

I  used  to  know, 

I  have  seen  her, 

T  suppose  it  will, 

Lay  them  on  the  table, 

Give  me  some  V)read, 

Very  much  too  short, 

He  has  none, 

You  do  not  knny/  him, 

John  has  enough, 

Can  she  not  go  ? 


CLASS  IL 
Redundant  Words,  or  Pleonastic  Expkessioks. 
Incof.kect.  Cokkect. 


I  could  not  get  to  go, 
^^  The.  speaker  rose  w^;, 
>,  *.  i  H  ^.J"el  r'(!?oio  u, 
V^      IJ\?  aoove,  s 

''•'   Up  over, 
Down  under, 

He  mentioned  it  over  again, 
I  will  repeat  it  again, 


I  couM  not  go, 

The  speaker  rose. 

He  fell. 

Above, 

Over, 

Under, 

He  mentioned  it  again, 

I  will  repeat  it, 


iP 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR. 


103 


Incorrect. 

They  both  met, 
He  cannot  iaW  for  why. 
Return  hack  imnjcdiately, 
He  went,  but  will  soon  come 

Where  shall  I  go  fo? 

He  was  in  here, 

We  entered  ihto-the  case, 

I  am  a  going, 

He  is  a  walking,  ^ 

Can  you  go  ?  7o  he  sure, 

Uye  see  that  thar  man  ? 

I\e  done  said  it. 

But  1x6  8  done  done  it, 

How  do  you  do  ? 

He  has  got  enough, 

Mary  she  went, 

John  lie  said  it, 

Susan  lier  bonnet, 

George  his  book. 

Bring  me  them  there  quills, 

This  here  book, 

That  there  book, 

Lool-y  there, 


Correct. 

They  met. 

He  cannot  tell  wh}^ 

Return  immediately. 

He  went,  but  will  soon  return. 

Where  shall  I  go? 

He  was  here. 

Wo  entered  the  cave, 

I  am  going, 

He  is  walking, 

Can  you  go  ?    Surely, 

Do  you  see  that  man  ? 

I  have  said  it. 

But  he  has  done  *', 

How  are  you  ? 

He  has  enough, 

Mary  went, 

John  said  it, 

Susan's  bonnet, 

George's  book. 

Bring  me  those  quills, 

Thi«  book. 

That  book, 

Look  there. 


CLASS  in. 
Words  Badly  Chosen. 


Incorrect. 

I  am  dry. 

Put  out  the  candle, 

Give  me  them  books, 

I  reckon  it  will  rain, 

I  guess  it  is  enough, 

I  calculate  to  return, 

You  read  right  well. 

She  cannot  hear  good, 

lam  monstrous  glad  to  see  you. 

He  has  a  heap  of  money, 

I  want  it  hadly, 

A  greaV^  territory. 

The  Erricson  is  a  big'^  ship, 

Webster's  large*  mind, 


Correct. 

I  am  thirsty. 

Extinguish  the  light. 

Give  me  those  books, 

I  think  it  will  ram, 

I  think  it  is  enough, 

I  intend  (or  purpose)  to  return. 

You  read  very  well. 

She  cannot  hear  well, 

I  am  glad  to  see  you, 

He  has  much  money, 

I  want  it  much, 

A  large  territory, 

The  Erricson  is  a  1  rge  ship, 

Webster's  great  mind. 


*  Great  is  applicable  to  menial  measurement,  large  to  the  measure- 
ment of  solid  bodies,  and  hig  to  some  unnatural  increase  or  swelling. 


'1P4 


Y0RK*8  tLLUSTRATIVE  AND 


Incorkect. 

He  is  to  the  store, 

My  mother  learned  me  the  let- 
ters, 

I  want  it  right  had, 

It  rains  hardy 

A  hard  battle, 

A  little  hit  a  sentence, 

I  got  up  at  7  oclock, 

I'll  do  as  well  as  I  lin, 

yojCones  ought  to  go, 

Are  yotts  all  well  ? 

You  unzes  can  stay, 

I  I'noic'd  it  was  him, 

He  is  gwine  home, 

I  8€€ii  her, 

I  hear  11  her, 

I  taken  it  to  be  him, 

You  had  hetter  go, 

They,;?^  half  an  hour, 

I  allowed  he  had  come, 

He  alloiced  to  me, 

I  admire  at  you, 

3Ie  and  you  think  alike, 

OucJi !  how  it  burns, 

The  storm  hegun  to  subside, 

YL^fotched  it, 

I  8ot  out  on  my  journey, 

Let  us  walk  out,  and  take  the 
fresh  ar, 

They  air  at  home, 

Crockett  was  a  great  har  hun- 
ter, 

Thar  he  stands, 

He  chaws  his  own  tobacco, 

I  can't  mind  it, 

I  will  take  some  of  those  mo- 
lasses,* 

I  am  sceared  of  robbers, 

I  see  him  last  Monday, 

"Why  did  you  not  bring  the 
plow  ?  Because  she  was  not 
repaired. 

Let  the  Sicertery  record  the 
names. 


COKRECT. 

He  is  at  the  store, 

My  mother  taught  me  the  let- 
ters, 

I  want  it  very  much, 

It  rains  fast, 

A  fierce  battle, 

A  small  sentence, 

I  rose  at  7  oclock, 

ril  do  as  well  as  I  can. 

You  ought  to  go. 

Are  you  all  well? 

You  can  stay, 

I  knew  it  was  he, 

He  is  going  home, 

I  saw  her, 

I  heard  her, 

I  took  it  to  be  him, 

You  would  do  better  ^o  go, 

They  fought  half  an  hour, 

I  supposed  he  had  come. 

He  suggested  (or  said)  to  me. 

I  wonder  at  you. 

You  and  I  think  alike. 

Oh  !  how  it  burns. 

The  storm  began  to  subside. 

He  brought   it, 

I  set  out  on  my  journey, 

Let  us  walk  out  and  take  the 
fresh  air, 

They  are  at  home, 

Crockett  was  a  great  bear  hun- 
ter. 

There  he  stands, 

He  chews  his  own  tobacco, 

I  cannot  recollect  it, 

I  will  take  some  of  the  (or  that) 
Molasses, 

I  am  afraid  of  robbers, 

I  saw  him  last  Monday, 

Why  did  you  not  bring  the 
plow  ?  Because  it  was  not 
repaired. 

Let  the  Secretary  record  the 
names, 


•Molasses  is  strictly  singular,  being  the  syrup  which  drains  from 
jscovado  sugar  while  cooling. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  105^ 

Incorrect.  Corkect. 

T  a.m  puitfj  nigh  frozen,  I  am  nearly  frozen, 

Pach  the  wheat  off  to  mill,  Take  (or  send)  the  wheat  t^ 

mill, 
Pack  her  off  to  church,  Take    (or    conduct)     her     to 

church. 


LESSON  L. 


PUNCTUATION   OR   GNOMONOLOGY. 
What  is  punctuation  f 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  a  written  composi- 
tion into  sentences,  clauses,  and  phrases,  in  order  to  make 
the  stops  which  the  sense  of  the  sentiment,  its  grammatical 
construction,  and  an  accurate  pronunciation  require. 

What  aro  tho  principal  stops  used  to  denote  these  pauses  ? 

They  are  the  comma  [,],  the  semicolon  [;],  the  colon  [:], 
the  period,  or  full  full  stop  [.],  the  interrogation  [?],  the 
exclamation  [!],  the  parenthesis  [()],  and  the  dash  [ — ]. 

•  Into  how  many  classes,  may  these  gnomons,  idices,  or  points  be  divided  ! 

They  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  viz  :  such  as  sepa- 
rate parts  of  a  sentence,  and  those  which  separate  entire 
sentences.  The  former  are  the  comma,  semicolon,  colon, 
dash,  and  parenthesis.  The  latter  are  the  period,  the  in- 
terrogation, and  exclamation  points. 

As  the  characters,  used  in  punctuation,  commonly  called 
stops,  are  mere  grammatical,  they  are  intended  to  point 
out  the  sense  of  the  construction,  rather  than  to  indicate 
the  length  of  time  the  reader  or  speaker  should  pause  at 
each  point. 

The  Comma  (,). 

The  comma  is  used  to  indicate  the  shortest  pause  ;  it  is, 
also,  used  to  denote  the  ellipsis  of  some  words. 

The  principal  uses  of  the  comma  are  exhibited  in  the 
following  rules  and  remarks. 


^^|t^ 


106  York's  illusteatia^e  and 

RULE  I — When  the  construction  of  a  simple  sentence 
is  interrupted  by  an  adjunct,  loosely  thro-wn  between  its 
parts,  it  must  be  separated  by  a  comma  before  and  after 
it ;  as,  '•  Law,  in  its  most  cotifincd  sense,  is  a  rule  of  human 
action/'  "  Charity,  like  the  sun,  brightens  every  object 
around  it." 

RL^LE  II — When  the  grammatical  subject  of  a  propo- 
sition is  modified  by  a  subordinate  clause,  or  by  an  adjunct 
considerably  extended,  the  logical  subject  should  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  predicate  by  a  comma  ;  as,  "  The  hail  wJiiaJi 
fell  last  2veek,  hii.d]j  mjured  the  standing  crops."  "The 
intermixture  of  evil  in  human  society,  serves  to  exercise 
some  of  the  noblest  virtues  of  the  human  soul." 

Rem. — If  the  modifying  element  is  short,  the  comma  may  be 
omitted;  as,  '"The  end  of  all  things  is  at  hand." 

RULE  III — When,  by  transposition,  the  siih  or  inferior 
member  occupies  the  place  of  its  super,  it  may  be  separa- 
ted by  a  comma;  as,  ^' By  doing  good  to  others^  we  secure 
the  approbation  of  our  own  conscience."  ''''From  one,  they 
flee." 

RULE  IV — The  nominative  case  independent,  and  sever- 
al of  the  interjections,  are  separated  by  commas,  since 
they  are  not  elements  of  a  sentence, — consequently  not 
closely  connected;  as,  ^^ My  son,  give  me  thy  heart."  "iV 
ymi  will  assist  me,  James,  1  will  accompany  you."  "io, 
from  their  seats,  the  mountains  leap." 

Rem.  1. — 'When  the  case  independent  is  modified  by  an  adjunct, 
the  comma  shoultt'  be  phiced  after  it ;  as,  John  of  likhmoml^  como 
forth. 

Rem.  2. — When  a  pronoun  is  joined  with  a  noun  in  making  an  ad" 
dress,  it  should  not  be  separated  from  the  noun  ;  as,  "  Ye  scenes  di- 
vineli/  fair,  proclaim  your  Maker's  wondrous  power." 

Rem.  8. — Those  interjections  which  express  a  very  stiong  emotion 
or  feeling,  are  generally  followed  by  an  exclamation  point;  as,  '''Ah  f 
whither  shall  I  fly  ?" 

Rem.  4 — AVhen  a  conjunction  introduces  an  eiCrtWjj/Z<?,  or  is  separated 
by  some  intervening  words  or  phrases,  from  the  member  to  which, 
it  belongs,  it  should  be  separated  by  a  comma;  as,  Prepositions  gov- 
ern the  objective  case;  as,  "With  him,  I  went."  ''For,  for  this  cause, 
pay  ye  tribute  also. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAxMMAR.  107 

Rem,  5. — An  adverb,  or  perhaps  any  other  word,  throu-n  off  from 
the  member  to  which  it  belongs,  shouid  be  separated  by  a  comma; 
as, 

"  Stoirn  ^orne  on  Time's  most  r;tp\<l  v>'ing, 

Sf(«li  De&th  eotnmand  you  to  his  b..r." 

RE^f,  Ci. — V\'o-rds  of  others  rcpeat'C<l,  but  not  as  v^ notations,  and  also 
words  and  phrases  repeated  for  emphasis,  should  be  separated  by  a 
•comma  or  commas;  as,  "Thus  shalt  thouf,ay  to  the  children  of  Israel, 
'i  AM  katlitciit  me  nnto  you.''''     *' J/appi/,  lidf^pjiy^  h^PPVi  pair/' 

RULE  V — The  case  abs<5liite  with  words  (lcpendm<i;  on 
it,  }3articiples  and  adjectives  v-vith  v/ords  depending  on  them, 
should  be  separate<l  from  the  rest  of  th<e  sentence  by  com* 
mas;  as,  ''''  EonaparU^  being  banished,  peace  was  restored 

.to  Europe."     His   talents,  fanned  for  gr-cat  enterprises, 

•could  not  fjiil  to  render  him  conspicuous, 

"  J.v'?us,  let  fill  t?jy  lovers  shine, 

Illustrious  as  the  hun, 
And,  hnc;ht  tr'-'th.  torrowed  my  diviitc^ 

Their  glorious  circuit  ruE," 

Rex  1 — When  st  paTrticiple  immediatcl}' ioUoviS  thts  v\-ord  on  which 
9t  depends,  taken  in  a  restrictive  sense,  the  comma  should  be  omitted 
h^fore  the  participle;;  as,  "  lie  Icmrj  ridkukd,  left  the  mstitution." 

Re:.^.  2 — When  a  participle,  without  an  afl^nnct,  is  scparxtett  from 
the  word  on  which  it  depends  in  construction,  a  comma  is  i:;encrally 
uisertwJ  before  a  n<i  after  it:  ?ts,  "And,  v.'he«  he  was  come  near,  he 
beheld  the  city,  an;.'  wept  over  it,  s>i'.}}iKr/,  if  thou  hadst  known,  ct<'." 

RULE  yi — When  the  rcljitive  is  s<5  closclr  connected 
^,vith  its  antecedent^  that  it  v/ill  not  admit  of  transposition, 
5t  should  not  be  separated  from  it  by  «,  coujma ;  as,  '*  Henry 
n'^aw  hats  wkich  he  wanted." 

Rem.  1 — The  relative  n<ay  bo  fcptrated  by  a  comma,  v.hen  its  ante- 
cedent is  used  in  a  general  sense  ;  jk.  "  Man    v^h-'  is  bcr«  of  woman 
!S  of  f«w  days,  and  full  of  trouble." 

Rf:3r.  2 — A  comi«a  should  be  placed  before  the  relative  when  a  word 
■or  phrase  intervenes  between  it  and  its  antecedent;  as,  "lie  gave  mc 
thcp?Vc<?  of  ar.  apple,  trhich  he  (ound."" 

Rem.  ^ — When  the  relative  dausc  ts  l>r<4;cn  by  the  introduction  ol 

a  sub-member,  the  relati»*c  may  be  separated  from  its  antec^^-dcnt  by 
?i  comma;  as,  "An  old  clock,  wnirn,  /"'•  t'n,;  ni^np-,  had  stood  in  a 
farmer's  kitchen,  suddenly  stopped." 

Rem.  -i— When  Uac  relative  cJanse  is  involved,  and  rca«Jily  admits  of 


transposition^  the  rel»ti79  may  be  separatect  from  its  a-atecedcai:  Ir  » 
eomraa;  a»,  '^'"Tbe  hSy^.  w%9si  heme  'mfe  ^xcyjyy,  beato'jrs  many  char- 
ities." 

Ke3».  B—lr>^7xrh  exan/phs  as-  the-  l&sl,.  ths-  ctvwi'Sto- ^s  fre.Tjuently 
otnitited  5>efojre  the  relative^  n«r  does  the  constyuetion  really  dcjMand 
that  the  rjlatrre  s&onld  be  wpayated  from  \t»  aMeeecfent  many  case^ 
except  as  noticed  in  Hemscrln  2. 

RULU  yil — ^WfeeTY  a  ^7ijunctio?i  rs  mi^erstfj&i  in  con- 
5iecting  words  in  tkc  sam^  e^ng'troetiQny  hs  plaet  shcuU 
he  supj^lieci  bj  a  ccfnn^a,  sftd^.  ako^.  wbea  the  verb  of  3 
simple  member  ia  ^7Kl*rstofl^d ;.  as^.  "  He  is  a  flain,  honest 
man."  From  1-sia¥,  arises  scciarity  ;.  fjr^ia  ^eeuritij,  curiosity;; 
from  cvmontyy  kno-wlealge^^'^  «tc, 

RULE  VIII— Three  or  mere  -^sr^ls  ©«c^rrii»g  ia  the 
s-am.e  ceostr taction,  "with  th«ir  GSvivjuiiGtion.  expyessed  orinw 
der&low'^,  s^ouIjI  all  be  separated  bj  co^masy  except  the- 
)ast  y  as,.  "  Darid  was  a  tra^e't,  wwf^  fhyib9^  aia'd  generous 
man,"" 

OBSJSRTiSTlON-— Th«'  yeasfcrm  why  -fehe  last  word  is  not? 
separatedy  is^  beeaus-e  it  >s  ©ithei'  is  jmxta-p^siti*)?!  with  it& 
super^  &r  «l©s«s  a  &«Bteii«e^ 

RsM.  3— H  tfc«T  aye  ii>€«i*inat3ve3-,  vpri3e7»  g®??e?»I3j  separate  th«3 
5ast  ailso*;.  as,  The  hefsdr  the  /i«a-?'t^aB^t>b^3  Af«:*!??y^sH»«hlb«  sonstantly 
empioyed  >»  doing  good*" 

liB».  2- — Wbe»  YfOT(h  arc  w^isiect^  :»  p»3rs,^  ^he  paiTS  cwly  should 
be  separated  :,  aa,  '"' Int^rsst  and  a'i»t>l>ltiatiy,  A<??wv  and  sharme^  friend- 
ftJlip  and  gnmity,.  gratitwii  aiad  yitm^ps,  ay«  th«  pr3me  snovers  fii 
public  tranaacticina,"' 

Rem.  3 — Words  orphans,  p!5»ce«la3>tith»ti€a>ly,  sbo'oM  be  separate*  1 
by  Gona^snas -J,  asj.  "TFwD^gh  d3e's>',  ^t  dear  :,  ih&@^h  g-s-^tls,  yet  no i 
dull:' 

Rem.  4— When  the  conjunction  ^r  joi:<JS  oa  a  -nord  wh^^h  expresst' 
an  akernatne  e€  wo?d«,  aad-  nst  oS  kieas,  jt  sfeoukl  b«  fjcjkararted  by  , 
comma ;,  ae-,.  '*  Be  saw  a  krge  l^r  <^'  5^^^'." 

Rem.  5 — When  phrases  are  COTinected  bj  ronjuncli'^Bis,.  they  aro 
yegulated  by  t!he  saiae  falsa  »s  si^igl?  wordsi-^ 

RULE  IX— Wh^T^  a^y  ten-se  of  the  verb  "  To  Be"  i 
followed  by  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode,  which,,  by  tran^ 
position,  may  be  m«id®  the  aomiaative  case  to-it,  the  former 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAiMMAR.  109 

is  generally  separated  from  the  latter  verb  by  a  comma ; 
as,  *' The  best  preservative  of  health  is,  to  he  temperate." 

Rem,  1 — The  infinitive  mode  absolute  with  words  depending  on  it, 
should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma ;  as, 
"  I'o  correct  the  spirit  of  discontent^  let  us  consider  how  little  we 
deserve." 

Rem.  2 — When  the  infinitive  mode  or  a  part  of  a  sentence  is  used 
as  the  subject  of  the  verb,  it  is  generally  separated  from  it  by  a  com- 
ma; as,  *'  To  die  for  one's  country^  is  glorious." 

Rem.  3 — When  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode,  is  separated  from  the 
word  on  which  it  depends  in  construction,  a  comma  is  generally  placed 
before  it;  as, 


0,  for  a  glance  of  heavenly  day, 
To  TAKE  this  stubborn  heart  away. 


»/ 


RULE  X — Modifying  words  and  phrases,  as,  however, 
nay,  lience,  therefore,  besides,  in  short,  finally,  formerly, 
etc.,  are  usually  separated  by  commas  ;  as,  "  It  is,  however, 
the  task  of  criticism  to  establish  principles." 

RULE  XI — The  members  of  a  compound  sentence, 
whether  successive  or  involved,  should  be  separated  by 
commas ;  as,  "  The  boy  wounded  the  old  bird,  and  stole 
the  young  ones."  **  Providence  has,  I  think,  displayed  a 
tenderness  for  mankind." 

Rem.  1— Those  modifying  clauses  which  are  joined  on  by  j^uch 
subordinate  connectives  as  do  not  limit  the  verb  in  the  preceding 
clause,  should  be  punctuated  as  co-ordinate  clauses;  as,  "  The  hus- 
bandman is  happy,  if  he  Jchows  his  advintagesy 

Rem.  2 — In  comparative  sentences  whose  members  are  short,  the 
comma  should  not  be  used ;  as,  '*  Wisdom  is  better  t/um  gold.^^ 

RULE  XII — The  case  in  apposition  with  its  adjunct, 
should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  com- 
mas; as,  *' Paul,  the  great  APOSTLE  of  the  Gentiles,  was 
eminent  for  his  Christian  zeal." 

Rem. — If  the  case  in  apposition  is  unaccompanied  by  any  modify ii* 
word  or  phrase,  no  comma  should  be  use<l;  as,  "The  patriarch  Joscpt^ 
w»8  an  illustrious  example  of  true  piety.'' 


110  York's  xllustrativl:  and 


THE  SEMICOLON, 

The  semicolon  ( ; )  requires  a  longer  pause  than  the  com- 
ma ;  the  proportion  being  as  one  to  two. 

The  semicolon  is  placed  between  the  clauses  of  a  period 
which  are  ]cs«^  closely  connected  than  such  as  are  separa- 
ted by  commas. 

RULE  I — When  the  first  division  completes  a  proposi- 
tion, so  IIS  to  have  no  dependence  on  what  follows,  but  the 
following  clause  has  a  dependence  on  the  preceding,  the 
two  parts  are  separated  by  a  semicolon;  aS;,  "The  one  has 
all  that  perfection  requires,  and  more,  but  the  excess  may 
be  easily  retrenched  ;  the  other  wants  tlie  qualities  requisite 
to  excellence." 

Hi:m. — In  general,  then,  the  semicolon  se]);ijntes  the  divisions  of  a 
Konlence,  when  the  hitter  division  has  «  deitendencc  on  the  former, 
whether  the  former  has  a  dependence  on  the  latter  or  not. 

RL'LE  II — When  several  members  of  a  sentence  have 
a  dependence  on  each  other,  by  means  of  a  substitute  tor 
the  same  principal  word,  and  the  clauses,  in  other  respects, 
constitute  direct  propositions,  the  semicolon  may  be  used  ; 
as,  "Wisdom  hath  buiided  her  house;  .s//e  hath  hew'n  out 
her  seven  pillars ;  she  hath  killed  her  beasts  ;  ^he  hath 
mingled  her  wine ;  she  hath  also  furnished  her  table." — Pro- 
verbs  ix. 

RLTLE  III — A  semicolon  is  generally  used  to  separate 
premises  and  conclusions  ;  as,  ^' Man  is  mortal  ;  therefore 
he  must  die."  "  Ccvsar  deserved  death ; /or  he  was  a 
tyrant." 

RULE  IV — The  semicolon  is  generally  used  to  separate 
an  example,  introduced  to  illustrate  a  rule  or  proposition ; 
as,  The  subject  of  a  verb  must  be  in  the  nominative  case; 
aSy  WcLshington  was  President.'' 

Rem. — The  above,  with  some  variation,  are  the  rules  generally  given 
by  punctuists,  to  direct  the  learner  to  a  proper  use  of  the  semicolon. 

tt  vvill  be  seen,  however,  that  the  principles,  on  which  the  proper 
application  ol  this  point  is  based,  arc  found  in  the  perception  of  a  re- 
scmdlance  and  contrast. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  Ill 

When  a  new  subject  is  introduced  in  the  sub-mcinber,  of  which 
something  similar  is  predicated,  to  that  of  the  super-member,  the  idea 
is  that  of  resemblance ;  and  the  semicolon  should  be  used  to  separate 
the  members  ;  as,  *'  As  wood  is  to  fire  ;  so  is  a  contentious  man  to  the 
production  of  strife." 

But,  when  a  new  subject  is  introduced  in  the  sub-member,  and  of 
which  soiMcthin,!:;:;  antitlietical  is  affirmed,  to  what  is  affirmed  in  the 
super-member,  the  idea  is  tiuit  of  antithesis  or  contrast ;  consequently 
the  members  should  be  separated  by  a  semicolon  ;  as,  "The^fwe  shall 
inherit  glory ;  J>ut  shame  shall  be  the  promotion  oi' fools.''^  Hence 
the  following  rule  will,  in  most  cases,  be  sufficient  to  direct  the  learner 
to  a  proper  application  of  this  gnomon,  or  point. 

RULE  Y — When  t'esemblance  or  contrast  is  affirmed  in 
the  sub-i"nembor,  the  members  should  bo  separated  by  a 
semicolon  ;  as,  "'  Heaven  is  the  region  of  gentleness  and 
friendship;  but  hell  of  fierceness  and  animosity."  "The 
wicked  flee  when  no  man  pursucth  ;  hut  the  righteous  arc 
as  bokl  as  a  lion."   '*  Eliza  is  bcaiitilul ;  and  so  is  Marif.'' 


THE  COLON. 

The  time  generally  given  to  tlic  colon  (: )  is  double  that 
of  tlie  semicolon. 

RL^LE  I — When  the  things  affirmed  in  the  latter,  or 
sub-member,  are  adapted  to  the  condition  of  tlie  things 
mentioned  in  the  former,  or  super-member,  tlie  colon  may 
boused  to  separate  the  members;  as,  "  JZ/.z/i  is  a  great 
sinner  :   Christ  is  a  great  Saviour/' 

RULE  11 — When  that  which  is  affirmed  in  the  latter, 
or  sub-member,  is  illustrative  or  confirmatorv  of  what  is 
affirmed  in  the  former,  or  super  member,  the  colon  may  be 
used;  as,  *'Man  cannot  arrive  at  a  point  here,  which  he 
cannot  pass:  he  is  to  advance  in  the  next  fvorld/'  '*  Mr. 
Gray  Avas  folloAVcd  by  Mr.  Erskine  vho  spake  thus :  I 
rise  to  second  the  motion  of  my  honorable  friend." 

Rj.:3f.  1— When  the  colo'.  i-^  n.,,1  f1...  rnv,u,',\\\-r  \<  t»«'ncra]ly 
otnittcd. 

Rem.  2— Our  best  writers  have  Ircqucnlly  confounded  ibc  colon 


112  York's  illustrative  aisd 

and  semicolon.  The  truth  is,  the  colon  is  nearly  obsolete ;  conse- 
quently but  sparingly  used  b}^  the  best  writers  of  the  present  age. — 
{See  i>,   WehsUr^s  Improtcd  Grammar j  Page  154.) 

Rem. — The  practice  of  writers  is  far  from  being  uniform,  with  re- 
gar.d  to  the  point  to  be  used  in  introducing  direct  tjuotations.  Some 
use  the  colon,  some  the  semicolon,  and  otherg,  the  comma. 


THE  FERIOD. 

The  period,  or  full  point  ( . ),  marks  a  completion  of  the 
sense,  a  cadence  of  tiie  voice,  and  the  longest  pause  used 
between  sentences.  It  closes  a  discourse,  also,  or  marks) 
the  completion  of  a  subject  or  section. 

Uem, — And  it  is  also  used  in  abreviating  words,  and  is  placed  after 
initials  when  used  alone;  as,  "  Rev.  Preat.  Craven,  D.  i>."  "  C.  K 
Deems,  I>.  D."     ''Bon.  David  X.  Swain,   L.L.  X>." 

THE  DASH  AND  PARENTHESIS. 

The  Daeh  (— -)  is  used  where  there  is  a  significant  pause, 
an  unexpected  transition  in  the  sentence,  or  where  a  sen- 
tence is  left  unfinished  ;  as,  "  If  thou  art  he — but  0,  how 
fallen  I" 

The  Dash  is  now  frequently  used  instead  of  the  Paren- 
thesis ;  as,  **  The  Colonists — such  is  human  nature — de- 
sired to  burn  the  town  in  which  they  had  been  so  wretched." 

The  Parenthesis  {)  is  used  to  enclose  a  part  of  a  sentence 
not  necessary  to  the  construction,  but,  in  some  way,  ex- 
planatory of  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  ;  as,  "Consider 
(and  may  the  consideration  sink  deep  in  your  hearts)  the 
fatal  consequences  of  a  wicked  life." 


INTERROGATION  POINT, 

The  Interrogation  point  (?)  is  used  when  a  question  is 
asked  ;  as.  Do  brutes  reason  ? 

Rem.— When  two  interrogative  members  are  closely  connected,  the 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  113 

comma  is  generally   used  after  the  first,  and  the  interrogation  point 
at  the  close  of  the  last  member ;  as, 

"  When  ghall  I  reach  that  happy  jilnce, 
And  be  foF'CTer  llcst  f" 


EXCLAMATION"    POINT. 

The  exclamation  point  (!)  is  used  after  an  exclamative 
sentence  ;  as,  "  How  vain  are  all  things  here  below  !"  It 
is  also  used  after  phrases  expressive  of  emotion;  as,  "  0, 
happiness!  oar  being's  end  and  aim  !" 


BRACKETS. 

Brackets  (]  )  are  used  when  a  word  or  phrase  is  intro- 
duced for  explanation  ;  as,  *'  He  [the  Professor!  explained 
it."  ^ 


QUOTATION  MARKS. 

Quotation  Marks  ( "  " )  are  used  to  include  a  passage 
laken  verbatim  from  some  other  author  ;  as,  He  said,  "  / 
relinquish  my  claim.'' 


THE  CARET. 

The  Caret  ( A  )  is  used  in  writing  to  show  that  some  let- 
lies 
ter,  word,  or  plirasc,  has  been  omitted  ;  as,  ''The  book  upon. 

A 


THE  HYPHEN. 

The  Hyphen  ( - )  is  used  to  separate  tlic  parts  of  a  com- 
pound word  ;  as,  Bouk-bindcr.     Wlicn  placed  at  the  end 


114  YORK'S    ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

of  aline,  it  sllO^YS  that  a  word  is  divided,  the  remaining  part 
being  carried  to  next  line. 


THE  ELLIPSIS. 

The  Ellipsis   ( )   is  used   to  denote  the  omission  of 

certain  letters  or  words;  as,  Y k,  K g. 


THE  INDEX. 

The  Index  (H^*)  points  to  some  remarkable  passage. 


ACCENT. 

The  accent  is  a  character  used  to  point  out  the  accented 
sylablc  of  a  word,  whether  long  or  short.  Our  ancestors 
borrowed  three  of  these  characters  from  the  Greek  lan- 
Lniniio,  viz:  the  acute  (/),  the  grave  (\),  an<l  the  circum- 
ilex^(A).  The  acute  points  out  the  rise  of  voice  ;  the  gnive, 
the  fall ;  and  the  circumflex  unites  both  of  these  in  one, 
and  makes  an  undulation  of  the  voice.  The  breve  (^  is 
placed  over  an  unaccented  syllable  in  poetry  ;  and  the 
(lash  ( — )  is  used  over  the  accented  syllables  ;  as, 


"With  rav 
The  mdn 


ished  ears, " 
arch  hears." 


THE  APOSTROPHE. 

The  apostrophe  (')  is  used  as  a  sign  of  the  possessive  case, 
and  also  to  mark  the  omission  of  a  letter  in  the  syncopa- 
tion of  words;  as,  ''This  is  JoAn's  book."  "  ^'e?^  now 
where  Alpine  solitudes  ascend." 


CONSTKUCTIVE    GRAMMAK.  115 

THE  ASTERISK. 

Three  asterisks  (=i=^=*)  show  that  some  in<]elic:ito  expres- 
sion has  been  omitted,  or  that  there  is  some  dcfVct  in  the 
manuscript. 

The  asterisk  (*),  the  obelisk  (f),  the  double- da fjger  (J), 
and  parallels  (||),  are  only  used  as  foot  notes,  or  references 
to  the  mar<T;in. 


LESSON  LI. 


*.v 


OF   CAPITALS. 

The  following  words  should  begin  with  capir      letters  • 

1  The  first  word  of  every  distinct  sentence. 

2  Proper  names  and  titles  of  office  or  nor;  as, 
^' G-corge  Waslimgton^  General  Lee,  Judqe  ovv,  Si?' 
Walter  Scott,  the  ^Ohio,  Main  Street:' 

3  The  name  of  an  object  personified,  may  1  .;c<l  as  a 
proper  name,  and  should  then  begin  with  a  i;:;  .tal  ;  as, 
*'  Gentle  Spring:' 

4  Adjectives  derived  from  proper  names;  a-,  *' Ameri- 
caiiy  English^  Roman:' 

5  The  appellations  of  the  Deity;  as,  '•  '!vd^  the 
Almighty:'     "  The  Supreme  Being." 

G  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry. 

7  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation,  wIk  ;  ilic  quota- 
tion is  a  complete  sentence  of  itself;  as,  ''  <  '  ist  aays, 
*" Mg  yoke  is  easy.'  " 

8  Every  noun  and  principal  word  in  the  ti'd'  f  books  ; 
as,  '*  Pope  8  Eisay  on  Man:' 

^     9  The  pronoun  1  and  interjection  0  arc  wr  :,    i  in  capi- 

10  Any  word,  when  of  particular  importan*  .•  may  be-» 
gin  with  a  capital. 


116  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

LESSON  LII. 

OF    VERSIFICATION. 

Poetry  is  metrical  composition,  or  it  is  the  language  of 
passion,  or  of  enlivened  imagination. 

Versification  is  the  arrangement  of  a  certain  number  of 
syllables,  according  to  particular  rules,  so  as  to  produce 
melody. 

Meter,  in  English,  consists  in  the  regular  return  of  the 
accent  at  regular  intervals.  Accent^  then,  is  essential  to 
verse ;  but  Rhyme  is  not,  since  there  may  be  a  regular 
return  of  accent,  or  syllables  similarly  affected,  without 
the  similarity  of  sound  which  produces  rhyme. 

Two-**or  more  syllables,  grouped  together  by  accent, 
constitute  afoot,  or  measure.  It  is  called  a  measure,  be- 
cause, by  its  aid,  the  voice  steps  along,  as  it  were,  through 
the  verse  in  a  measured  pace.  When  two  syllables  are 
thus  grouped  together,  it  is  called  dissyllabic  measure  ;  as, 

•■'  With  rav  |  ished  ears, 

The  mon  |  arch  hears." 

But,  when  three  syllables  are  thus  grouped  together,  it 
13  trissyllahic  measure  ;  as,     < 

"  I  am  mon  |  arch  of  all  |  I  survey." 

Several  measures,  or  feet,  properly  arranged,  form  a 
line,  or  verse.  A  verse,  then,  is  a  certain  number  of  con- 
nected feet  forming  one  line. 

A  Stanza  is  a  combination  o2  several  verses,  varying 
in  number,  according  to  the  poet's  fancy,  and  constituting 
a  regular  division  of  a  poem  or  song. 

When  the  first  and  third  lines  of  a  stanza  contain  four 
Iambic  feet  each,  and  the  second  and  fourth  lines,  three 
feet  each,  it  is  Common  Meter. 

When  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  lijnes  of  a  stanza  con- 
tain three  Iambic  feet  each,  and  the  third  line  four,  it  is 
Short  Metre. 


CONSTRUCTIVE  TxRAMMAR.  117 

When  all  the  lines  of  a  stanza  contain  four  Iambic  feet 
each,  the  metre  is  Long. 

Blank  verse  is  metrical  composition  without  rhyme  ;  as, 

'•Now  came  still  evening  on,  and  twilight  r/r»;/ 
Jiad,  in  her  sober  livery,  all  things  dad." 

h}ofTr<^'  a  similarity  of  smmrl  between  th^  last  sylla^ 
i)les  of  different  lines,  as  m  the  following, 

"  How  do  thy  mercies  close  mo  rounfi' 

Forever  be  thy  name  adored  I  ' 

I  blush,  in  all  things,  to  ahonnd; 

The  servant  ia  above  his  lord." 

SCANNIISrG.. 

Scanning  a  verso  is  dividing  it  into  its  component  feet, 
and  properly  placing  the  accent.  • 

All  the  feet  used  in  poetry  arc  reducible  to  eight  kinds- 
four  of  two  syllables,  and  four  of  three,  as  folfows  : 

DISSYLLABLE.  TRISSYLLABLE. 

An  Iambus  ^  —  ;  A  Dactyl  _ .  ^ 

A  Trochee  -  ^  ;  An  Amphibrach  ^  -  ^ :' 

A  Spondee ;  A  Tribrach  ^  ^  ^l 

A  Pyrrhic  ^  ^  ;  An  Anapaest       ^  ^  _ ! 

The  Iambus,  Trochee,  Anapaest,  and  Dactyl,  may  be 
denominated  prtn^cpal feet   as  pieces  of  poetry  are  chiefly 
and  may  be  wholly   formed  of  them.     The  others  may  be 
termed  secondary  feet,  because  their  object  is  to  diversify 
the  numbers,  and  to  improve  the  verse." 

IAMBIC  VERSE. 

In  Iambic  verse,  the  second  syllable  of  every  foot  is  ac- 
cented, and  the  first  unaccented. 

1.  lamhie  of  one  foot,  or  Monometer ; 

From  mc, 
They  flee. 

2.  Iambic  of  two  feci,  or  Dimeter ; 

To  mc  I  the  rose 
No  longer  glows. 


118 

3.  Iambic  of  three  feet^  or  Trimeter ', 

In  pla  I  ces  far  |  or  near, 
Or  famous,  or  obscure. 

4.  Iambic  of  four  feet^  or  Tetrameter ; 

How  sleep  |  tlic  brave  |  wbo  sink  |  to  rest, 
With  all  their  country's  honors  blest. 

5.  Iambic  of  five  feet,  or  Pentameter  ; 

On  rif  I  ted  rocks,  |  the  drag  |  on's  late  |  abodes, 
The  green  reed  trembles,  and  the  bulrush  nods. 

6.  Iambic  of  six  feet^  or  Hexameter  ; 

For  thou  I  art  but  |  of  dust ;  |  be  hum  |  ble  and  |  be  wise. 

Note. — The  Iambic  Pentameter  is  called  the  Heroic.  The  Iambic 
Hexameter  is  called  the  Alexandrine. 

The  Alexandrine  is  sometimes  admitted  into  heroic 
rhyme,  and,  when  used  sparingly  and  with  judgment,  occa- 
sions an  agreeable  variety ; 

The  seas  |  shall  waste,  |  the  skies  |  in  smoke  |  decay. 
Rocks  fall  to  dust,  and  mountains  melt  away  ; 
But  fixed  his  word,  his  saving  power  remains  ; 
Thy  realm  \  forev  \  er  lasts,  \  thy  oivii  \  Messi  \  ah  reigns^ 

7.  Iambic  of  seven  feet,  or  Heptameter; 

The  lof  I  ty  hill  |  the  hum  ]  ble  lawn  |  with  count  |  less 

beau  I  tics  shine  ; 
The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade,  proclaim  thy  power 

divine. 

Each  line  is  commonly  divided  into  two  ;  thus. 

The  lofty  hill,  the  humble  lawn, 

With  countless  beauties  shine ; 
The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade, 

Proclaim  thy  power  divine. 

TROCHAIC   VERSE. 
1.   Trochaic  Monometer ; 

Changing, 
Ranging. 


119 

li.   Trochaic  Dimefcr ; 

Fancy  |  viewing. 
Joys  ensuing. 

3.  Trochaic  Trimeter ; 

Go  where  |  glory  |  waits   thee,  | 
But  whore  fame  elates  thee. 

4.  Trochaic  Tetrameter ; 

Round  a  |  holy  |  calm  dif  |  fusing, 
Love  of  peace,  and  lonely  musing. 

5.  Trochaic  Pentameter", 

All  that  I  walk  on  |  foot  or  |  ride  in  |  chariots, 
All  that  dwell  in  palaces  or  garrets. 

G.   Trochaic  Hexameter ; 

On  a  I  mountain  |  stretched  be  |  neath  a  |  hoary  |  willow, 
Lay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  viewed  the  rolling  billow. 

In  Trochaic  verse,  tiie  accent  is  placed  upon  the  odd 
syllable ;  in  Iambic  verse,  upon  the  even. 

The  Iambic  verse  admits  of  an  additional  short  sylla- 

A  Chieftain  to  the  Highlands  bound, 
Cries  boat  |  man  do  |  not  tar  |  ry. 

The  Trochaic  admits  of  an  additional  long  syllable ; 

Where  the  |  wood  is  |  waving  |  green  and  (  high^ 
Fawns  and  j  Dryads  |  watch  the  |  starry  |  slcy, 

ANAIVESTIC  AVERSE. 

1.  Ajiapa'stic  Monometer ; 

On  the  land, 
Now  I  stand : 
From  the  son, 

N"'*^'    I'm    frpc. 

li.  Anapa  »tic  Diwefxr  . 

<  )n  a  plain,  |  as  he  strode. 
By  the  bermit'*^  abode. 


S^L^} 


1.  Anapaestic  Trl: 

oil  ye  woods,  |  spread.. your  biMii 
To  your  inmost  rcceses  T  lly ; 

I  would  liide  with  tho  })er\pts!*or  <]<(«    iia.so  ; 
\  Nvuuld  vanish  from  cvci  v  cv,-. 


4.  Anajja'stia  Teiramefer ; 

At  tli(?  close  j  of  thc<lay  |  when  the  ham  |  kih  Rtlll: 
And  mortiils  the  sv/cets  of  for!^ctfalness  prove. 

In  Anapaestic  verse,  tlio  accent  falls  on  every  third  syi- 
lable.     The  first  foot  of  Anapa.'stic  verse  may 'be  rin  lam- 


fuis : 


All'}  mor  I  tals  tlie  sweets  |  of  forL-et  j  Inlnen-  ]  roye. 

DACr:  .....;  YEKPE. 

1.  Dad 'die  JyTirnometcr  \ 

Oil  eer  f  fill  V, 
Tcfirfilllv'. 

2.  Daciylic  IHmeter ; 

Free  from   rjix  |  iety. 
Care  and  -r>'\{  |  iety. 

3.  DactiUc  Trimeter: 

Wearing  a  |  wny  in  Iii.s  |  youthfulness. 
Loveliness,  jjoaulv,  .•)?-!< I  trp.t]:ruin(\ss.  ' 

4.  DactlUc  Tetrameter  : 

Boys  will  an  |  tieipatc  f  Invish  nnd  j  dissipnte. 
All  tl::--   -    -  V  I.usy  pate'hq.s.  honrded  with  care. 


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